Srećna NOVA GODINA!
31 December 2010
MC Portal
Pisanje - najveća pohota
30-12-2010 21:20:49
Budući najveća pokretačka energija čovekova, seksualnost se kao motiv nalazi u svim epohama i svim zapisima. Od biblijskog mita o stvaranju sveta u kome “Adam pozna Evu ženu svoju” preko, u književnosti našeg jezika, prvih zapisa o Ćel Nikoli koji ima “bojno koplje” i njegove milosnice u koje je “dinja pukla”, sve do modernih vremena i savremenih nam pisaca.
Ovo za “Novosti” kaže književni kritičar mr Mileta Aćimović Ivkov, ističući da se u našoj savremenoj književnosti pamte erotske scene u prozama Milorada Pavića. Posebno u knjizi - noveli “Šešir od riblje kože” koja se reprezentativno izdvaja po prisutnosti poetskih i fantazijskih opisa i atributa seksualnosti. Ukazuje i na knjige “Jesenja svila” Danila Nikolića, “Maco, da l,me voliš“ i “Mango” Ljubice Arsić, “Pisac izdaleka” Vladana Matijevića.
- U opusu Matijevića, ozloglašenog pisca subverzivne i šokantne proze, po groteksnim i crnohumornim slikama prepoznatljive su i stranice o životu i priključenijama otkačene i upražnjavanju ljubavnih veština izobilno sklone junakinje našeg doba Mace Aksentijević. Te su scene i slike umnoženo date u knjizi indikativnog naslova “Časovi radosti”. Valja pomenuti i Jelenu Lengold u čijim pričama su erotski motivi takođe prisutni. U tom je pogledu iznanađujuće i novi kratki roman Davida Albaharija “Ćerka”. Njegov će junak za emanaciju te najčistije prirodne regije reći: “Pravi seks jeste mir”.
Po mišljenju književnog kritičara Slađane Ilić u savremenoj srpskoj književnosti dosad se nije pojavio renomirani muški pisac erotskih priča, pa danas u našoj literaturi najbolje priče ove vrste pišu žene. Objašnjavajući zašto je to tako kaže:
- Haotična stvarnost uzdrmala je i poremetila uloge polova. Žene su, nažalost, pod njenim uticajem zbog nužnosti stalne borbe postale manje ženstvene a muškarci, nažalost manje muževni i borbeni. Kako svaki vid težnje za slobodom zahteva upornost i borbenost, a erotika je nužno povezana sa slobodom, žene su isprednjačile.
Ipak Ilićeva ukazuje na romane Pavla Ugrinova “Ljubav i dobrota”, “Van sveta”, “Bez ljubavi” u kojima je prisutna stalna igra erosa i tanatosa, kao i na roman “Jesenja svila” Danila Nikolića, i vanredno lepu priču Radovana Belog Markovića “Noć u belom satenu”. Grupi tih pisaca pridružio je još dvojicu predstavnika srednje generacije Savu Damjanova i Mihaila Pantića. I dok Damjanov u izuzetnoj priči “Preobražaja” pripoveda o večitoj borbi Animusa i Anime, a u “Remek-delcima” stvara moderne bajke s motivima erotskog, Pantić se u okvirima svakodnevice bavi trenucima propuštenim za bliskost i ljubav i samoćom kao stalnim stanjem i sudbinom savremenog čoveka.
- Dve spisateljice koje danas pišu najlepše erotske priče jesu Ljubica Arsić i Jelena Lengold. Prva, sa ironijske distance vrlo svedeno i efektno pripoveda o stalnim mimoilaženjima i nerazumevanju suprotnih polova, o nestajanju emocija usled nužnog uprošćavanja koje nameće svakodnevica, što se vidi u zbirci “Maco, da l, me voliš“. O ljubavi i erotici Lengold takođe najčešće pripoveda sa ironijske distance i služi se postupkom karnevalizacije. Tako junaci zbirki priča “Pokisli lavovi”, “Lift”, “Vašarski mađioničar” koji bi mogli biti tragični postaju komični. “Ljubav je zajeban žanr” kaže junak iz jedne priče Mihaila Pantića. Jeste, to je tačno. Isti takav žanr je i erotika - zaključuje Slađana Ilić.
A šta kažu pomenute spisateljice dobre erotike? Jelena Lengold veli da je o erotici teško pisati jer zalazi u sferu intimnog više nego bilo šta drugo. I ma koliko pisac bio distanciran od svog dela ipak je on i privatna ličnost koja barem nekim delićem svesti čuva onog malograđanina u sebi koji će kad tad da pomisli šta će oni koji me poznaju misliti o napisanom. Istovremeno prenatrpani smo teorijama o tome kako živimo u vremenu pornografije. Pri tom spisateljica ne misli samo na pornografiju koja je vezana za seks nego na pornografiju svega gde se najtajniji i najlepši sadržaji duše izlažu javnosti i prodaju za veću ili manju cenu.
- Ta činjenica pomalo ubija volju, jer pisac ima osećaj da radi uzaludan posao, da samo dodaje jednu kap bistre vode u more koje se gotovo više i ne vidi od džinovske naftne mrlje. Najzad, vrlo je teško balansirati na onoj liniji koja će vas odvojiti od romantičnog kiča i stereotipa s jedne strane, i od vulgarnosti s druge. Biti lascivan, bestidan, raskalašan, a zadržati meru umetnosti - to je zaista težak i pohotan posao. Skoro da je pisanje dobre erotske literature pohotnije od same erotike! Kad sam pisala priču “Vašarski mađioničar” postala sam svesna da bih tako mogla da napišem i roman, u istom dahu, ali jednostavno nisam smela. Bio me je strah da bih zauvek dobila etiketu erotskog pisca, Dakle, malograđanin u meni je pobedio i stavio tačku u nekom trenutku. Tako vam je to, malograđanin uvek pobedi strast i nadahnuće.
Ljubica Arsić ukazuje na problem žena koje su najčešće njene junakinje. One su negde na sredini puta, nisu više lepršavo mlade, ali ne dovoljno stare da bi akumuliranim iskustvom i mudrošću izbegle životne zamke.
- Zapadna kultura ženi nameće zahtev da bude stalno mlada, sveža, sočna. Čitave industrije i grane medicine stavljene su u pogon kako bi se izbeglo da na licu i telu žene godine ostavljaju tragove. Ženi se nameće problem kako spojiti te zahteve sa unutrašnjom zrelošću, svešću o vlastitom biću, njegovim biološkim i mentalnim granicama. Društvo nam neprestano poručuje da je sramota stariti. Sa druge strane potrebne su godine da bi žena ovladala profesijom, stekla karijeru. Sve moje junakinje žele da vole ugledajući se na dugovečne brakove svojih roditelja. Suočavaju se međutim sa svojim neuspešnim vezama i svesne su da su negde neostvarene žene. U svojim nastojanjima one koriste neke muške strategije koje ih vraćaju na početnu poziciju.
Izvor: http://www.novosti.rs
MC Portal
30-12-2010 21:20:49
Budući najveća pokretačka energija čovekova, seksualnost se kao motiv nalazi u svim epohama i svim zapisima. Od biblijskog mita o stvaranju sveta u kome “Adam pozna Evu ženu svoju” preko, u književnosti našeg jezika, prvih zapisa o Ćel Nikoli koji ima “bojno koplje” i njegove milosnice u koje je “dinja pukla”, sve do modernih vremena i savremenih nam pisaca.
Ovo za “Novosti” kaže književni kritičar mr Mileta Aćimović Ivkov, ističući da se u našoj savremenoj književnosti pamte erotske scene u prozama Milorada Pavića. Posebno u knjizi - noveli “Šešir od riblje kože” koja se reprezentativno izdvaja po prisutnosti poetskih i fantazijskih opisa i atributa seksualnosti. Ukazuje i na knjige “Jesenja svila” Danila Nikolića, “Maco, da l,me voliš“ i “Mango” Ljubice Arsić, “Pisac izdaleka” Vladana Matijevića.
- U opusu Matijevića, ozloglašenog pisca subverzivne i šokantne proze, po groteksnim i crnohumornim slikama prepoznatljive su i stranice o životu i priključenijama otkačene i upražnjavanju ljubavnih veština izobilno sklone junakinje našeg doba Mace Aksentijević. Te su scene i slike umnoženo date u knjizi indikativnog naslova “Časovi radosti”. Valja pomenuti i Jelenu Lengold u čijim pričama su erotski motivi takođe prisutni. U tom je pogledu iznanađujuće i novi kratki roman Davida Albaharija “Ćerka”. Njegov će junak za emanaciju te najčistije prirodne regije reći: “Pravi seks jeste mir”.
Po mišljenju književnog kritičara Slađane Ilić u savremenoj srpskoj književnosti dosad se nije pojavio renomirani muški pisac erotskih priča, pa danas u našoj literaturi najbolje priče ove vrste pišu žene. Objašnjavajući zašto je to tako kaže:
- Haotična stvarnost uzdrmala je i poremetila uloge polova. Žene su, nažalost, pod njenim uticajem zbog nužnosti stalne borbe postale manje ženstvene a muškarci, nažalost manje muževni i borbeni. Kako svaki vid težnje za slobodom zahteva upornost i borbenost, a erotika je nužno povezana sa slobodom, žene su isprednjačile.
Ipak Ilićeva ukazuje na romane Pavla Ugrinova “Ljubav i dobrota”, “Van sveta”, “Bez ljubavi” u kojima je prisutna stalna igra erosa i tanatosa, kao i na roman “Jesenja svila” Danila Nikolića, i vanredno lepu priču Radovana Belog Markovića “Noć u belom satenu”. Grupi tih pisaca pridružio je još dvojicu predstavnika srednje generacije Savu Damjanova i Mihaila Pantića. I dok Damjanov u izuzetnoj priči “Preobražaja” pripoveda o večitoj borbi Animusa i Anime, a u “Remek-delcima” stvara moderne bajke s motivima erotskog, Pantić se u okvirima svakodnevice bavi trenucima propuštenim za bliskost i ljubav i samoćom kao stalnim stanjem i sudbinom savremenog čoveka.
- Dve spisateljice koje danas pišu najlepše erotske priče jesu Ljubica Arsić i Jelena Lengold. Prva, sa ironijske distance vrlo svedeno i efektno pripoveda o stalnim mimoilaženjima i nerazumevanju suprotnih polova, o nestajanju emocija usled nužnog uprošćavanja koje nameće svakodnevica, što se vidi u zbirci “Maco, da l, me voliš“. O ljubavi i erotici Lengold takođe najčešće pripoveda sa ironijske distance i služi se postupkom karnevalizacije. Tako junaci zbirki priča “Pokisli lavovi”, “Lift”, “Vašarski mađioničar” koji bi mogli biti tragični postaju komični. “Ljubav je zajeban žanr” kaže junak iz jedne priče Mihaila Pantića. Jeste, to je tačno. Isti takav žanr je i erotika - zaključuje Slađana Ilić.
A šta kažu pomenute spisateljice dobre erotike? Jelena Lengold veli da je o erotici teško pisati jer zalazi u sferu intimnog više nego bilo šta drugo. I ma koliko pisac bio distanciran od svog dela ipak je on i privatna ličnost koja barem nekim delićem svesti čuva onog malograđanina u sebi koji će kad tad da pomisli šta će oni koji me poznaju misliti o napisanom. Istovremeno prenatrpani smo teorijama o tome kako živimo u vremenu pornografije. Pri tom spisateljica ne misli samo na pornografiju koja je vezana za seks nego na pornografiju svega gde se najtajniji i najlepši sadržaji duše izlažu javnosti i prodaju za veću ili manju cenu.
- Ta činjenica pomalo ubija volju, jer pisac ima osećaj da radi uzaludan posao, da samo dodaje jednu kap bistre vode u more koje se gotovo više i ne vidi od džinovske naftne mrlje. Najzad, vrlo je teško balansirati na onoj liniji koja će vas odvojiti od romantičnog kiča i stereotipa s jedne strane, i od vulgarnosti s druge. Biti lascivan, bestidan, raskalašan, a zadržati meru umetnosti - to je zaista težak i pohotan posao. Skoro da je pisanje dobre erotske literature pohotnije od same erotike! Kad sam pisala priču “Vašarski mađioničar” postala sam svesna da bih tako mogla da napišem i roman, u istom dahu, ali jednostavno nisam smela. Bio me je strah da bih zauvek dobila etiketu erotskog pisca, Dakle, malograđanin u meni je pobedio i stavio tačku u nekom trenutku. Tako vam je to, malograđanin uvek pobedi strast i nadahnuće.
Ljubica Arsić ukazuje na problem žena koje su najčešće njene junakinje. One su negde na sredini puta, nisu više lepršavo mlade, ali ne dovoljno stare da bi akumuliranim iskustvom i mudrošću izbegle životne zamke.
- Zapadna kultura ženi nameće zahtev da bude stalno mlada, sveža, sočna. Čitave industrije i grane medicine stavljene su u pogon kako bi se izbeglo da na licu i telu žene godine ostavljaju tragove. Ženi se nameće problem kako spojiti te zahteve sa unutrašnjom zrelošću, svešću o vlastitom biću, njegovim biološkim i mentalnim granicama. Društvo nam neprestano poručuje da je sramota stariti. Sa druge strane potrebne su godine da bi žena ovladala profesijom, stekla karijeru. Sve moje junakinje žele da vole ugledajući se na dugovečne brakove svojih roditelja. Suočavaju se međutim sa svojim neuspešnim vezama i svesne su da su negde neostvarene žene. U svojim nastojanjima one koriste neke muške strategije koje ih vraćaju na početnu poziciju.
Izvor: http://www.novosti.rs
MC Portal
30 December 2010
29 December 2010
„Ugovor o prijateljstvu produžen na 2011.” godinu.
Član 1.
ZAGRLJAJ!!!
Član 2.
Nikada nikog ne ponižavaj.
Član 3.
Čuvaj svaku osobu u svom srcu,
budi kao Sunce koje svoju svetlost i toplinu ne uskraćuje nikome.
Član 4.
PRIJATELJI SU KAO ANĐELI KOJI TE PODIGNU U NEBO KADA SI NA TLU....
Član 5.
Nemojte se danas boriti za ono protiv čega ste se nekad borili; nemojte nikad tuđim greškama objašnjavati i pravdati svoje. Nemojte raditi ono čega bi se vaši roditelji stideli i čega će se sutra vaša deca stideti; nemojte sebe proglašavati jedinim i najboljim.
Član 6.
Najbolji nisu više živi, a mi smo tu samo zato što njih više nema.
Član 7.
Oslobađajte se slugu; pomozite im da ne budu sluge čak i onda kada bi oni hteli da budu.
Član 8.
Poštujte druge ljude, nemojte ih proglašavati prijateljima samo onda kada su vam potrebni.
Član 9.
– BUDI DOBAR ČOVEK. DOBROTA JE VELIKO ZDRAVLJE.
DOBRI LJUDI IMAJU VREMENA. TO JE GLAVNA ODLIKA DOBROTE.
POKLONI SU RETKI I JEFTINI. SVE OSTALO JE PODMIĆIVANJE.
– SLOBODA JE DA MOŽEŠ DA KAŽEŠ ŠTA OSEĆAŠ I DA MOŽEŠ SVOJU SLOBODU DA PODELIŠ SA NEKIM, PA DA PREĐE U LJUBAV. JER NAJVIŠI STEPEN SLOBODE JE LJUBAV. PODELITI SA NEKIM, ODUZETI OD SEBE DA BI DAO DRUGOM TO JE SLOBODA I TO JE LJUBAV. (Dušan Radović)
Član 10.
„Informacija nije znanje, znanje nije mudrost, mudrost nije istina, istina nije lepota, lepota nije ljubav, ljubav nije muzika – muzika je sve!” – Frenk Zapa
Član 11.
Sve bilo je muzika – Arsen Dedić
Član 12.
1 Ako jezike čovečije i anđeoske govorim a ljubavi nemam, onda sam kao zvono koje zvoni, ili praporac koji zveči.
Mt. 25:45, Rim. 14:1, Rim. 14:21
2 I ako imam proroštvo i znam sve tajne i sva znanja, i ako imam svu veru da i gore premeštam, a ljubavi nemam, ništa sam.
Mt. 7:22, Lk. 17:6, 1 Kor. 13:8
3 I ako razdam sve imanje svoje, i ako predam telo svoje da se sažeže, a ljubavi nemam, ništa mi ne pomaže.
Mt. 6:1
4 Ljubav dugo trpi, milokrvna je; ljubav ne zavidi; ljubav se ne veliča, ne nadima se,
1 Pet. 4:8
5 Ne čini šta ne valja, ne traži svoje, ne srdi se, ne misli o zlu,
Jer. 40:16, Rim. 14:12, Filip. 2:4, Filip. 4:8
6 Ne raduje se nepravdi, a raduje se istini,
Ps. 10:3, Rim. 1:32, 2 Jn. 1:4
7 Sve snosi, sve veruje, svemu se nada, sve trpi.
Gal. 6:2
8 Ljubav nikad ne prestaje, a proroštvo ako će i prestati, jezici ako će umuknuti, razuma ako će nestati.
9 Jer nešto znamo i nešto prorokujemo;
1 Kor. 8:2, 1 Tim. 6:4
10 A kad dođe savršeno, onda će prestati šta je nešto.
Isa. 54:13, Jn. 6:45
11 Kad ja bejah malo dete kao dete govorah, kao dete mišljah, kao dete razmišljah; a kad postadoh čovek, odbacih detinjstvo.
12 Tako sad vidimo kao kroz staklo, u zagonetki, a onda ćemo licem k licu; sad poznajem nešto, a onda ću poznati kao što sam poznat.
Jest. 1:14, Mt. 18:10, 2 Kor. 3:18, Filip. 3:12
13 A sad ostaje vera, nada, ljubav, ovo troje; ali je ljubav najveća među njima.
Mt. 22:38, Mk. 12:30 (Sveti Pavle)
Član 13.
Život
Sve to ne zavisi od mene.
Setim se kako beše lep,
nad vodama dubokim nekim,
kao Mesec beo,
sa lukom tankim i mekim
jedan most.
I vidiš, to, uteši me.
Ne zavisi od mene.
Dosta je da toga dana,
zemlja oko mene zamiriše preorana
ili da oblaci prolete
malo niže,
pa da me to potrese.
Ne zavisi od mene.
Dosta je da toga dana,
zemlja oko mene zamiriše preorana
ili da oblaci prolete
malo niže,
pa da me to potrese.
Ne, ne od mene.
Dosta će biti ako jedne zime,
iz vrta jednog zavejanog
istrči neko ozeblo, tuđe dete
i zagrli me.
(Miloš Crnjanski)
Ugovor zaključen na obostranu sreću.
Prijatelj
Prijatelj
OTAC VAZDUŠNIH DVOBOJA
Vitez leti u nebo
Kao izvanredan taktičar i učitelj, pilot Osvald Belke bio je tokom Prvog svetskog rata nadahnuće za prijatelje ali i neprijatelje
|
|
| Osvald Belke |
U avgustu 1914. godine jedan mali izviđački avion sleteo je u Mons, u Francuskoj, posle prvog borbenog zadatka. Iz njega je izašao dvadesettrogodišnji pilot koji nije izazivao bogzna kakvu pažnju. Bio je sasvim prosečan pilot, usijana glava, željan da se dokaže u oblacima. Tek nedavno zaradio je svoja krila, pa nikom nije bilo ni na kraj pameti da mu je suđeno da uđe u istoriju, i da na njenim zlatnim stranicama bude upisan kao otac rata u vazduhu.
Zvao se Osvald Belke, i za samo dve godine postao je poznat s obe strane fronta, ne samo kao jedan od prvih vazdušnih asova rata već i kao veliki vođa, učitelj, prvi taktičar bitaka na nebu, pilot koji će se boriti kao lav a umreti kao nekrunisani kralj.
Rođen 19. maja 1891. godine u gradu Gibihštajnu, pored Halea, Belke je bio šesto dete saksonskog učitelja. Vršnjaci su ga zaobilazili u širokom luku smatrajući ga čudnim, dok su učitelji mislili da i nije nešto bistar. Međutim, na kraju, on je život posvetio podučavanju drugih. 
Ideali u jednosedu
Belke je još od tih mladićkih dana bio izvrstan plivač, svestrani sportista koji je gutao knjige i obožavao nauku, posebno fiziku i matematiku. Svake večeri odlazio bi u sobu i čitao o novim naučnim dostignućima, svakog jutra budio se i maštao da će jednog dana i on puniti stupce naučnih časopisa. Ali, vremena su bila teška, svuda je zveckalo oružje. U vazduhu se osećao miris rata koji je u njemu polako razvio želju da postane vojnik. Zaobilazeći uobičajene postupke, Belke je pisao pravo caru Vilhelmu II i molio ga za upis na vojnu akademiju. Na iznenađenje rodbine, posle nekoliko meseci dobio je pismo u kome ga je car lično obavestio da će pohađati jednu vojnu školu u komšiluku. Ali, u pismu se nalazilo i prijateljsko upozorenje: „Naravno, moraćeš prvo da završiš srednju školu s odličnim ocenama. Posle toga, javićeš se generalu Fon Švarckopenu u mestu Koblenc.”
Nedugo zatim parao je nebo.
|
|
| Belke sa svojim mehaničarom |
Međutim, nenaoružani izviđački avioni „avijatiks”, kojima je Belke upravljao sve do proleća 1915. godine, nisu ostavili poseban utisak na njega, pa je zatražio premeštaj u jedinicu u Francuskoj, koja je u svom sastavu imala izviđački dvosed „LVG”, jedan od prvih nemačkih aviona opremljenih mitraljezom u kupoli za izviđača. Molba mu je uslišena. Odavno je Belke ovladao veštinom pisanog ubeđivanja.
U njemu je zabeležio i prvu pobedu, oborivši francuski „moran”, za šta je odlikovan gvozdenim krstom. No, njegova prva vazdušna pobeda bila je i poslednja u dvosedu „LVG”. Jedinica u Dueu uskoro je opremljena novim jednosedom „foker E.I”.
Iako avionom nije bilo lako upravljati zbog malog motora od 80 konjskih snaga i povećane težine usled ugrađenog mitraljeza koji je pucao kroz elisu, Belke se odmah zaljubio u mali jednokrilac. U julu 1915. godine napisao je roditeljima: „U ovom predivnom jednosedu moji ideali su postignuti, sad mogu da budem i pilot i izviđač i lovac.”
|
|
| Belkeov 'foker' s oznakama eskadrile 'Jasta'. |
Francuska medalja
U to vreme upoznao je Maksa Imelmana, s kojim je odmah razvio duboko prijateljstvo. Obojica su bila agresivni piloti, delili su istančan osećaj za ulogu aviona kao moćnog ratnog oružja, obojica su već bila na naslovnim stranama štampe. Kao ličnosti, pak, bili su sušta suprotnost. Imelman je bio sebičnjak koga niko nije voleo, dok su Belkea svi obožavali. On je voleo život i sve što je on nosio, posebno žene, pa je ostalo upamćeno da je jednom u svom „fokeru” provozao nekoliko časnih sestara i bio kažnjen. Drugog puta se javno udvarao jednoj Francuskinji koja je živela blizu njegove baze, dok je Imelman bio veran samo jednoj ženi – svojoj majci.
|
|
| Pripadnici eskadrile 'Jasta' slikali su se pored oborenog britanskog aviona. |
Zanimljivo je da je Belke bio rođeni vođa, iako je sebe smatrao usamljenim ratnikom. Napisao je: „Možete da zaslužite poverenje svojih saboraca jedino ako se povežete s njima i ne postavite se kao uzvišeni, moćni vladar.” Bio je izuzetno vešt pilot, nasrtljiv i smrtonosno delotvoran u vazduhu, ali nije uživao u ubijanju, nije se sladio mukama pobeđenih. U vremenu koje je još čuvalo običaje viteštva, umeo je da u bolnici posećuje svoje ranjene žrtve i da im donosi poklone. Jednog letnjeg popodneva, dok je šetao prašnjavim stazama diveći se prelepom predelu, skočio je obučen u kanal da bi spasao jedno francusko dete koje nije znalo da pliva. Roditelji dečaka bili su mu toliko zahvalni da su istog trena sročili pismo u kome su od vlasti Francuske tražili da mu po hitnom postupku dodeli „Legion d’Honner”. Na iznenađenje cele Francuske i Nemačke, Belke je četiri meseca kasnije zaista dobio francusku medalju za spasavanje života.
Prvi borbeni par
Ne poštujući naredbe nemačke visoke komande da ne zalazi na neprijateljsko područje, Belke je upravo tamo, na licu mesta, otkrio manjkavost svoje taktike „usamljeni vuk” jer je jedva izbegao da ga drugi avion obori dok je napadao prvi. Znao je da opasnost samostalnog letenja može da se otkloni jedino letenjem u parovima. Jedan avion za napad a drugi, postavljen malo iznad i u stranu, da mu čuva rep.
Upravo tada je sudbina uzela stvari u svoje ruke. Belke i Imelman počeli su zajedno da lete i postali veoma uspešan par. Ali, i nešto mnogo više. Bili su prvi borbeni par, taktika koju i danas koriste piloti. Do oktobra 1915. godine obojica su oborila po četiri letelice, započevši tako nadmetanje koje je nemačka štampa samo rasplamsavala, rivalstvo okončano tek juna 1916. godine, Imelmanovom smrću.
Zanimljivo je da je od tada prošao skoro vek, ali istorija ni danas nije sasvim rasvetlila uzroke koji su doveli do Imelmanove smrti. Englezi su, naime, tvrdili da su ga oni oborili, dok su Nemci govorili da mu se pokvario mehanizam za sinhronizaciju mitraljeske paljbe, i tako pokidao elisu. Kako god bilo, danas se svi slažu da je Imelmanova pogibija bila ogroman udarac za Nemačku, ali njegovo ime i danas živi preko zvaničnog naziva jednog drskog manevra – polulupinga, s poluokretom na vrhu.
Pravila važe i danas
Posle njegove smrti učinjeni su koraci da bi se zaštitio jedini tadašnji nemački junak. S rezultatom od osamnaest pobeda, Belke je prizemljen. Ali, nije se predavao. Pisao je pisma, negodovao. Jedino je uspeo da izdejstvuje premeštaj da bi ostalima na turskom i ruskom frontu dizao moral. To ga je još više razljutilo, pa je poleteo pre odlaska i oborio devetnaestu žrtvu.
Sa svakim oborenim avionom slava mu je vrtoglavo rasla. Ljudi su izvikivali njegovo ime, umetnici veličali njegove zasluge. Za sve bio je oličenje nemačkog ideala natčoveka koji je Hitler kasnije lukavo iskoristio, pa nije bilo retko da se dogodi i sledeće: pošto mu je javljeno da je Belke u publici, jedan pevač Frankfurtske opere odmah je prekinuo predstavu i improvizovao serenadu u njegovo ime. Bilo je to doba koje je slavilo žive junake.
U to vreme Belke je počeo da piše posebnu strategiju vazdušnog ratovanja, niz pravila koja će kasnije postati poznata kao „Belkeova dikta”:
1. Uvek pokušajte da uspostavite visinsku razliku pre početka borbe i, ako je moguće, neka Sunce bude iza vas.
2. Uvek nastavite s napadom koji ste započeli.
3. Otvarajte vatru samo iz blizine i jedino ako ste sasvim sigurni da vam je protivnik na nišanu.
4. Uvek bi trebalo da držite jedno oko na neprijatelju.
5. U bilo kojoj vrsti napada, od najveće važnosti je da priđete protivniku s leđa.
6. Ako se neprijatelj obruši na vas s visine, ne pokušavajte da pobegnete nego se okrenite da ga sačekate.
7. Ako se nađete iza neprijateljskih linija, nikad ne gubite iz vida sopstvenu liniju povlačenja.
8. Napomena za odrede: uvek je bolje napadati u grupama od četiri ili šest aviona i izbegavati da dva jure istog neprijatelja.
Širom sveta piloti se i danas pridržavaju ovih pravila.
Britanci bacaju venac
Uporedo s razvijanjem pravila, Belke je izdejstvovao odobrenje da stvori posebnu eskadrilu, da bude učitelj.
Vreme će pokazati da je to bila najtrofejnija vazdušna jedinica u istoriji. U gomili mladih darovitih pilota bili su i Manfred fon Rihthofen, Ervin Beme i Hans Rajman – trojica mladića koja će pod njegovim vođstvom postati najtrofejniji nemački piloti. Jedinica poznata kao „Jasta 2” završiće rat s preko dvadeset asova u svojim redovima i s 336 vazdušnih pobeda.
Oktobra 1916. godine Osvald Belke otisnuo se na svoj poslednji zadatak. Vodeći formaciju od šest aviona, u kojoj su se nalazili i Fon Rihthofen, poznat kao Crveni baron, i Beme, upustio se u napad na nekoliko neprijateljskih bombardera, i u silini borbe zaboravio jedno od sopstvenih pravila: Izbegavati da dva aviona u isto vreme napadaju jednu metu.
I usledila je tragedija. Belke i Beme slučajno su se sudarili i desno krilo Belkeove letelice se prepolovilo. Dok je olupina klizila prema zemlji, učitelj je već bio mrtav.
Bila je to sahrana koje se ne bi postideli ni kraljevi.
Dan kasnije, britansko Kraljevsko vazduhoplovstvo, Belkeov najveći neprijatelj, u velikoj formaciji nadletelo je aerodrom i bacilo venac s natpisom „U čast kapetana Belkea, hrabrog i dostojnog suparnika”. Četrnaestog decembra 1916. godine „Jasta 2” promenila je ime u „Jasta Belke”, ime koje ova jedinica i danas nosi.
28 December 2010
E Tako se to radi.... kratko ali j.......o
Putin naredio prelazak na slobodni softver
Ruski premijer, Vladimir Putin, potpisao je odredbu prema kojoj bi sva ruska državna tela i vladine agencije trebalo da pređu na korišćenje slobodnih i open source softverskih rešenja, uključujući operativne sisteme GNU/Linux.
Izvor: T-Portal
Prema navodima potpisanog dokumenta, koji možete pročitati i preuzeti sa ove adrese, Rusija bi u potpunosti trebalo da pređe na slobodna softverska rešenja do 2015. godine. Dokument, takođe, sadrži konkretna uputstva za takvu tranziciju.
Ruske vlasti već nekoliko godina planiraju prelazak na open source softverska rešenja. Tokom 2008. godine ruska vlada odredila je školama da na sve svoje računare instaliraju pakete slobodnog softvera, a one koje su i dalje želele da koriste komercijalna rešenja to su morale platiti iz sopstvenog džepa.
Ovim potezom ruska vlada planira znatne uštede u svom poslovanju.
B92.net
New year wishes.... from Shone
What do I wish them for new year? Hmm, a lot of things.....
Well, let there be some list.... OK?
1. For my family: I wish all best, a love, happiness, joy.... and that all their wishes come true!
2. For special person in my life ( I will be with her that crazy night) and I will told her, in person... you do not need to know everything, :D
3. For my friends: I wish.... that one of my friends continue to be just as is. Friendship is everything, that is for sure....even this person is stubborn trough the bone..... and sometimes is hard to be with.... but .... it makes good Russian Salad, Croissants, and have good set of jokes, and endless conversations.....
4.For the next of my friends: I wish him a more happiness with his cars, and computers.... he have made me a lot of troubles past few years... but let he continue to make more crazy things with programs and let he find more good movies for both of us. Share trough...
5. To this friend: I wish to give him for New Year, a diary.... a secret one, please do not ask how did I get my hands on it.... if I told, I am doomed.....
6. For this friend; I wish that he finally get his job in drugstore, and to find a woman of his life....
7. For the seventh... I wish her to be recognized as the artistic photographer, and a reporter, even abroad... and more kittens... and that she will finally find a man of her life... if such exists....
For the rest... It seems impossible to write, I have so many friends... for all of them:
LET THEIR WISHES COME TRUE, LET THERE BE HAPPINESS AND JOY!!!!
Šta je vreme?
Vreme... nanovo se vraća taj termin, smišljen od strane "sveznajućeg" homosapiensa, ili bolje reći homolunaticusa, nagoni na razmišljanje, preispitivanje... Da li vreme uopšte postoji? Nešto što je sam čovek, u svojoj malenkosti i potrebi da sebi objasni izvesne promene, naturio čitavom svom rodu. Sekunda, minut, sat, dan, mesec, godina... ograničavajući faktori koji sužavaju vidike, mogućnosti. Kako samo često čujemo i od samih sebe, "nemam vremena", "vreme će zalečiti, izlečiti...", "vreme je krivo za sve", "vreme je uz nas".....
Vreme? Ne. Mi smo ti koji kontrolišu svoju svest, mi smo ti koji su/nisu sposobni da organizuju svoj raspored, emocije, unutrašnje nemire. Mi smo ti koji smo zaslužni i isto tako krivi za ono što nam se dešava, ne tako osuđivano i uzdizano VREME. To je tek puka reč za prolaznost koju prosto ne možemo da svarimo i preformulišemo na neki drugi, efikasniji način. Postoje oni koji će reći, vreme nam omogućava da znamo gde smo u smislu, rođendana, godišnjica, raznih događaja... Opet, niko ne razmišlja o prostoru, o onoj drugoj, trećoj dimenziji i samom preklapanju istih.
Da li ste se ikada zapitali dok gledate u to veličanstveno Sunce, šta vidite? Vidimo ono što se dešavalo pre nekih osam i po minuta.
Zaključak?
Pa mi već živimo u prošlosti...
Posmatrate zvezde?
Pa većina njih više i ne postoji, to je samo trag nečega što beše... trag u vremenu ili trag prošlosti, a opet naša sadašnjost.
Ne mogu, a da vas ne zapitam, a šta to mi živimo, ka čemu idemo?
Mi smo već za nekoga prošlost u našoj jurnjavi za budućnošću, a opet smo tu vezani omčom prostora, svi na ovoj planeti.
Postoji toliko tema za koje će većina priznati da ih ne razume, ali vreme je jedino koje nas navodi na osećaj da ga u potpunosti razumemo, sve do trenutka kada nas neko pita "Molim Vas, objasnite mi šta je to vreme?".
Čisto naučno-filozofsko pitanje.
Odakle potiče ideja da vreme predstavlja pravolinijsko kretanje mereno tim malim opšte, prekopotrebnim časovnicima, kalendarima?
Naša, moderna civilizacija dopustila je da ova predstava zavlada našim životima kao nužnost mišljenja, postojanja. Šta je sa primitivnijim rasama? Kakav je njihov pojam o vremenu? Kako su na vreme gledale drevne civilizacije? Rekoh, moderna civilizacija vreme "posmatra" kao pravolinijsko kretanje, ali još pre dva-tri vek, većina civilizacija smatrala je da je vreme ciklične prirode.
Od svih civilizacija, može se reći da su Maje bile najopsednutije pojmom vremena. Kalendari Majinih sveštenika su se razlikovali od današnjih.
Od svih civilizacija, može se reći da su Maje bile najopsednutije pojmom vremena. Kalendari Majinih sveštenika su se razlikovali od današnjih.
Neko od naučnika kaže da su čak i tačniji za jedan dan u deset hiljada godina od ovih današnjih. Po čemu se to meri?
Sam čovek poseduje svest o razlici između prošlosti, sadašnjosti i budućnosti. Razmišljanje nametnuto iz čiste prolaznosti živog bića. Rađanje, trajanje, nestajanje. Neumoljivi tok vremena.
Upravo nadvladavanje prirodne težnje čoveka da živi u konstantnoj sadašnjosti, odvojila ga je od životije. Plemena su opstala kao zajednice zahvaljujući razvijenom osećaju ritma. Opet, vremenski cikus. Vreme za lov, vreme za setvu, žetvu... vreme za žrtve bogovima.
Prvi kalendari su prvenstveno povezani sa religijom, jer su se odigravanja žrtvovanja i raznih svetkovina u tačno određeno vreme pokazali veoma bitnim. Stari Koldeni, tj, kasni Vavilonjani smatrali su da na sva dešavanja na Zemlji utiču zvezde. Na osnovu njihovih pogleda na odnos astronomija-vreme, a posredstvom Hebreja, pratimo poreklo naše sedmodnevne nedelje, koja je u bliskoj vezi sa Suncem (Sun-day), Mesecom (Moon-day) i još pet planeta koje su otkrili.
Jedna od posledica naučne revolucije iz semnaestog veka je i ideja o vremenu, koja je pobudila svest filozofa i navela ih da prouče prirodu i ulogu ove "zamisli".Centralnu ulogu u ovim tumačenjima imao je filozof Imanuel Kant. Upravo Kant je zaključio da je vreme jedan od oblika naše "intuicije". Po Kantu, vreme ne predstavlja svojstvo spoljnih objekata, već samo subjektivnog uma, koji je svestan tih istih objekata....
Filozofi, naučnici i mnogi drugi proučavali su, istraživali, definisali vreme. To rade i danas. Nama ostaje da se vrtimo na moebijusovoj traci još neko vreme, izgubljeni ili ne, tu smo.
Sam čovek poseduje svest o razlici između prošlosti, sadašnjosti i budućnosti. Razmišljanje nametnuto iz čiste prolaznosti živog bića. Rađanje, trajanje, nestajanje. Neumoljivi tok vremena.
Upravo nadvladavanje prirodne težnje čoveka da živi u konstantnoj sadašnjosti, odvojila ga je od životije. Plemena su opstala kao zajednice zahvaljujući razvijenom osećaju ritma. Opet, vremenski cikus. Vreme za lov, vreme za setvu, žetvu... vreme za žrtve bogovima.
Prvi kalendari su prvenstveno povezani sa religijom, jer su se odigravanja žrtvovanja i raznih svetkovina u tačno određeno vreme pokazali veoma bitnim. Stari Koldeni, tj, kasni Vavilonjani smatrali su da na sva dešavanja na Zemlji utiču zvezde. Na osnovu njihovih pogleda na odnos astronomija-vreme, a posredstvom Hebreja, pratimo poreklo naše sedmodnevne nedelje, koja je u bliskoj vezi sa Suncem (Sun-day), Mesecom (Moon-day) i još pet planeta koje su otkrili.
Jedna od posledica naučne revolucije iz semnaestog veka je i ideja o vremenu, koja je pobudila svest filozofa i navela ih da prouče prirodu i ulogu ove "zamisli".Centralnu ulogu u ovim tumačenjima imao je filozof Imanuel Kant. Upravo Kant je zaključio da je vreme jedan od oblika naše "intuicije". Po Kantu, vreme ne predstavlja svojstvo spoljnih objekata, već samo subjektivnog uma, koji je svestan tih istih objekata....
Filozofi, naučnici i mnogi drugi proučavali su, istraživali, definisali vreme. To rade i danas. Nama ostaje da se vrtimo na moebijusovoj traci još neko vreme, izgubljeni ili ne, tu smo.
Balkane, balkane moj
Rimljani tukli Avare, da bi potom Avari i Sloveni tukli njih, a onda Sloveni tukli Kelte i Avare, te potom bili tučeni od strane Turaka i Ugara, koji su se tukli i međusobno, da bi na kraju Turci bili potučeni, a Slovenima ostalo da se tuku s Ugarima, potpomognutim Austrijancima, koje su potpomogli Nemci, kojima nije bilo dovoljno da se jednom tuku, nego su došli po još, da bi, na kraju, kad nije bilo više nikog s kime bi se tukli, Sloveni počeli da se tuku međusobno.
27 December 2010
Predpostavka, mama svih zajeba...
Da li vam se nekada desilo, da o nečemu predpostavljate?
Recimo, isplanirate vreme da dođete do posla, a pre toga ste naravno dali sebi luksuza da pomerite svoje radno vreme, za sat vremena unazad. Nadajući se da ćete uspeti da izbegnete jutarnji špic, tj. gužvu.
Normalno, niste računali na izgubljene vozače, tj niste obratili pažnju na vremenske prilike, klimatske promene, pijane policajce koji regulišu saobraćaj u najprometnijoj ulici vašeg grada i u kojoj se slučajno, nalazi vaša kancelarija.
Najgore od svega toga, što sam predpostavljala da će mi trebati samo dvadeset minuta do posla, a ispalo je da sam stigla posle 50 minuta.
Najbolji deo je bio kada me je pijani policajac zaustavio, naravno rutinska kontrola, to je odradio na sred raskrsnice i napravio gužvu. Otvorila sam prozor, njegovo ljubazno: "dobro jutro, Gđice", a pritom sam osetila smrad alkohola, mešanog.... Čini mi se da je u pitanju vodka, šljivka, ili brlja... Ljubazno sam mu rekla, da bi bilo najbolje da se sklonimo sa raskrsnice, i obavimo kontrolu na nekom mirnijem, bezbednijem mestu.... recimo na trotoaru. Mada je isti odgovorio: "Ne, ne, neka čekaju.", a čičica, koji je ubijao sirenu svog Renoa 4 iz perioda Jure je počeo da menja boje i prišao je policajcu. Krenula je svađa, između pijanog policajca i čičice, koji uzgred budi rečeno, takođe nije bio trezan.
Možete misliti... ljubazno sam zamolila policajca, da mi vrati isprave, držao ih je u desnoj ruci, pritom se klateći napred nazad!
Posle mog trećeg pokušaja da mi vrati isprave, uspela sam da iz ruku policajca istrgnem iste.
Nastavljajući dalje sa svađu sa čičicom, policajac nije primetio moj odlazak. Ali je primetio dolazak, ogromnog vozača turske cisterne, koji je na engleskom pokušavao da policajcu objasni neke stvari. Nadam se da je uspeo. :))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))
Dragi moji, drage moje...
Nikada, nikada ne predpostavljajte, jer i običan odlazak na posao, a kamoli nešto drugo, se može pretvoriti u krš i lom....
PS. Predpostavka je majka svih zajeba :)))))))))
Migrena........
Migrena, bol od kojeg glava puca
Migrena je poprilično tajanstvena i misteriozna forma glavobolje. Postoji nekoliko tumačenja uzroka njenog nastanka. Većina lekara misli da je uzrok svim simptomima koji prate migrenu poremećaj neurotransmitera seratonina u mozgu koji izaziva menjanje prečnika moždanih krvnih sudova. Međutim, neki stručnjaci tvrde da je migrena rezultat neuroloških poremećaja.
Pored jednostranog, pulsirajućeg bola, koji najčešće traje od 4-72 sata, migrenu često prati i mučnina sa povraćanjem, osetljivost na svetlost i zvuk.
Migrena se povezuje i sa promenama na nivou hormona, naročito estrogena. Interesantno je da se najčešće javlja pri menstruaciji i u trudnoći, a kod žena u menopauzi najčešće nastaje (u 75% slučajeva). Na njeno javljanje može uticati i korišćenje kontraceptivnih pilula. S pojavom migrene povezuju se i promene nadmorske visine, preskakanje obroka, neke namirnice i mirisi, stres i psihički premor. Primećeno je da se ova bolest često javlja među članovima jedne porodice, tako da postoji i genetski faktor koji utiče na njeno pojavljivanje.
Kada migrenozni napad počne, terapija, odnosno lečenje, uglavnom je bezuspešno. Međutim profilaksom, preventivom, može se smanjiti intenzitet i učestalost migrenoznih napada.
Žene pate od migrenoznih napada tri puta češće nego muškarci.
Vrlo često migrenoznim napadima prethodi pojava takozvane aure, vizuelnih poremećaja (treperenje svetlosnih tačaka, pojava slepih tačaka, obamrlost udova...). Kad se javi aura, probajte da na glavu stavite ledeni oblog, a da vam noge budu u toploj vodi. Povucite se u zatamljenu prostoriju i lezite neko vreme.
Aromaterapeuti savetuju masiranje slepoočnica etarskim uljima lavande, bosiljka ili nane. Nekoliko kapi etarskog ulja (dve do tri) rastvoriti u 10ml nosećeg ulja (suncokretovo, maslinovo, bademovo). Pazite da vam ovo ulje ne dođe u dodir sa očima. Takođe par kapi čistih etarskih ulja možete nakapati na jastuk na kome spavate.
U svetu su trenutno jako popularni biljni preparati protiv migrene na bazi vratića (Tanacetum parthenium). Za delotvornost ove biljke u terapiji zaslužni su seskviterpenski laktoni. Vratić smanjuje intenzitet migrenoznih napada, produžava intervale između dva napada i sprečava povraćanje, ali ne utiče na dužinu napada. Svima koji pate od migrene savetuje se da žvaću sveže listiće ove biljke, mada treba biti obazriv, jer to može izazvati ranice u ustima kod osetljivih ljudi. Najbezbednije je uzimati kapsule sa ekstratom svežeg lista vratića. Vratić se ne preporučuje trudnicama, jer može izazvati pobačaj. Posle dvadesetak dana upotrebe treba napraviti pauzu od nekoliko dana.
Pored vratića, protiv ove bolesti preporucuje se i matičnjak, nana, hajdučka trava, vrbova kora, jagorčevina i kamilica. Listovi lovora takođe mogu biti od pomoći kod migrene zahvaljujući sadržaju partenolida, supstance koja inhibira lučenje ratonina i na taj način sprečava promenu prečnika krvnih sudova u mozgu.
U lečenju migrene koriste se i blokatori kalcijumovih kanala. U biljkama: šargarepa, peršun, morač, kim, angelika) pronadeno je više od deset jedinjenja koja deluju kao blokatori kalcijumovih kanala.
Osobama koje pate od migrene savetuje se da iz ishrane izbace čokoladu, agrume, prevrele sireve, suhomesnate i konzervirane proizvode i dodatke jelima koji sadrže natrijum glutaminat. Savetuje se pojačan unos magnezijuma i vitamina B6.
Čajne mešavine protiv migrene
Angelika (Angelica arhangelica) 20g
Peršun (Petroselinum sativum) 20g
Morač (Foeniculum vulgare) 20g
Kim (Carun carvi) 20g
Anis (Pimpinela anisum) 20g
Sve biljke pomešati, pa tri supene kašike smeše preliti sa 750ml ključale vode, promešati, kuvati dva minuta i ostaviti da odstoji sat vremena. Procediti i popiti u toku dana.
Vratić (Tanacetum parthenium) 30g
Matičnjak (Melissa officinalis) 20g
Lovor (Laurus nobilis) 30g
Kamilica (Matricaria chamomilla) 20g
Sve biljke pomešati, pa tri supene kašike smeše preliti sa 750ml ključale vode, promešati, poklopiti i ostaviti da ostoji sat vremena. Procediti i popiti u toku dana.
Odoljen (Valeriana officinalis) 30g
Vratić (Tanacetum parthenium) 30g
Nana (Mentha piperita) 20g
Hajdučka trava (Achilea millefolium) 20g
Sve biljke pomešati, pa tri supene kašike smeše preliti sa 750ml ključale vode, promešati, poklopiti i ostaviti da ostoji sat vremena. Procediti i popiti u toku dana.
Hej, pijmo...
KAD JE ČAŠA BILA ČINIJA Kako je dokazano da su te posude bile čaše?
Mila Gajić, autor izložbe, kaže da odgovor na to pitanje počinje u praistoriji. Najpogodniji predmet koji je tadašnji čovek mogao da nađe u prirodi kako bi njime zahvatio i pio vodu, imao je oblik udubljene polulopte. Da nije tako, sigurno bi i prvi grnčari pravili prve zemljane posude u nekom drugom obliku a ne u obliku udubljene polulopte. Divan primerak je pehar iz petog milenijuma pre naše ere, iz starčevačke kulture: poluloptasto telo na okrugloj niskoj stopi, ukrašeno crnim i belim.
Srednji vek, tačnije kultura Vizantijskog carstva, nastavila je kao i antika pa je, između ostalog, zadržala i čašu nalik na činijicu, ali i, što nas trenutno više zanima, ostavila je prvi pismeni dokaz da su te posude zaista – čaše. Na nekima od njih piše jasno i glasno „ova čaša pripada”, pa je navedeno ime vlasnika čaše, i na kraju obavezni blagoslov onom ko iz nje pije, što znači da se ta posuda nalik na činiju zove – čaša. Isto dokazuje i poruka: ko kupi ovu čašu neka ga Bog blagoslovi i svetac koga slavi. Šta ona još otkriva, biće još reči.
Srebrna posuda za održavanje toplote iz 18. veka
O čašama, i to kao o uobičajenom delu srednjovekovne svakodnevice,
piše i u raznim dokumentima i spisima. Jedan od najcitiranijih je opis dvora kralja Milutina u Skoplju koji je u 13. veku zabeležio Teodor Metohit, vizantijski pisac. Došao je u Skoplje da, kao izaslanik vizantijskog cara Andronika II Paleologa, ugovori brak careve kćerke Simonide i kralja Milutina. Metohit je bio zadivljen sjajem dvora i dočekom koji mu je priređen, a naročito đakonijama na obilnoj kraljevoj trpezi koje su služene „u zlatnim i srebrnim tanjirima i posudama”.
Dokumenti primorskih gradova, Dubrovnika najviše, otkrili su da je u srednjovekovnoj Srbiji srebrna čaša bila dragocenost. Da nije tako, vlastela i plemići ne bi, pored novca, nakita, zlata i srebra, i čaše sklanjali na Primorje pred Turcima, kao što je tačno zabeleženo u gradskim arhivama 14. i 15. veka. Vuk Branković je 1395. godine sklonio u Dubrovnik veliko bogatstvo, pa i jednu zlatnu čašu koja teži pet litara, zatim je svoj sef nekoliko puta dopunjavao „srebrom glamskim”, znači srebrom koje je sadržalo i zlato, „srebrom žeženim”, i „srebrom belim”, pa kondirima, ibricima i pozlaćenim čašama, da bi 26. jula 1441. godine doneo još 2997 litara srebra, zlatnih sudova, ali i „50 čaša”.
Zašto su sačuvane čaše baš – srebrne?
Zato što je srebro bilo glavno privredno bogatstvo srednjovekovne Srbije, glavna, ali i izuzetno cenjena sirovina. Rudarska središta postojala su još u antičkim vremenima, a razvili su ih sredinom 13. veka – Sasi. Oko njih pravile su se topionice, radionice za obradu metala i izradu predmeta, kovnice novca, naselja za smeštaj radnika, crkve, trgovi na kojima se roba kupovala i prodavala, carine i vojnički garnizoni.
Dubrovčani su tada bili vrlo rado viđeni gosti u Srbiji, despot Stefan Lazarević im je dao razne povlastice ne bi li pospešio dobre trgovinske veze s njima. Međutim, kad su oni zloupotrebili date im privilegije počevši da izvoze iz Srbije srebra i zlata više nego što je predviđeno, despot ih je proterao. Da su imali velike količine novobrdskog srebra, otkriva podatak o haraču koji su morali da plaćaju Turcima nakon pada Despotovine. Februara 1442. godine Dubrovčani su se obavezali da će svake godine slati sultanu 1000 dukata u srebrnom posuđu. Zna se da su jednom takvom prilikom poklonili sultanu i njegovim zvaničnicima 45 srebrnih čaša!
Ko su bili vlasnici srebrnih čaša?
Otkriven je mali broj vlasnika. Na izložbi, i uopšte u našim muzejskim i privatnim zbirkama, samo jedna je vladarska – čaša cara Dušana. Na njoj jasno piše, ćirilicom, „U Hrista blagoverni Stepan car”. Čaša je nađena u Crkvi svetog Nikole u Drenovi. Okrugla je, plitka, s položenom, širokom, oštećenom drškom nalik na polumesec. Na dnu je medaljon s dvoglavim orlom, a natpis koji je otkrio vlasnika čaše ugraviran je oko orla. Zidovi čaše nisu ukrašeni, samo je na dršci bogata lozica sa stilizovanim lišćem. Dakle, iako je carska, ova čaša je obična, moglo bi se reći čak neukrašena. Da li je baš Dušan pio iz nje, ili je bila jedna od čaša kojima je darivao svoje plemiće, naravno da se ne zna.
U okolini Peći nađena je dublja čaša iz druge polovine 15. veka. Na spoljnim zidovima, uz ivicu čaše, ugravirana je napomena da pripada Vukši, uz blagoslov svakom ko iz nje pije. U Đunisu kraj Kruševca nađena je Rakina čaša – kako piše na njenom spoljnom zidu. Pop Đoka Jovančević, bogato ukrašenu čašu izrađenu početkom 16. veka koristio je, kako je zabeleženo na njenom spoljnom zidu, 1830. godine.
U priči o vlasnicima mora da se pomene čaša koju je moguće videti samo u Njujorku, zato što je čuva Metropoliten muzej. To je čaša vlastelina Sanka Miltenovića iz poznate humske porodice o kojoj se zna iz dokumenata iz 14. veka. Na spoljnim zidovima čaše je ćirilični natpis koji otkriva ime vlasnika. Nakon obavezne invokacije „U ime Oca i Sina i Svetog duha” je Sankovo ime, i na kraju poruka: „Ovo je čaša Sankova, ko njom pije, da ga Bog oveseli, i ne zabivaj ubogih.”
Od ovog leta, odgonetanje vlasnika pred novim je zadatkom. Naime, u privatnoj zbirci Ristović otkrivena je čaša izuzetna po mnogo čemu. I ona je na izložbi. Mala je, okrugla i pozlaćena, njeni zidovi su podeljeni na polja koja krase, naizmenično, fantastične životinje i uvijene lozice s lišćem. Završava se ivicom u obliku dvanaestolatičnog cveta. U njenom središtu je medaljon s vitezom na konju. I konj i vitez su pozlaćeni. Konj juri, vitez je u punoj ratnoj opremi, na glavi mu je pancirna kapuljača, u desnoj ruci dugačko koplje, a u levoj – štit. Na tom štitu su ugravirane heraldičke oznake – odgonetka imena vlasnika čaše. Za sada se zna, otkriva Mila Gajić, da ovaj konjanički portret ne odgovara nijednom poznatom konjaničkom portretu kod nas, a da okrugli medaljon koji krasi traka ispunjena krstićima podseća na medaljone iz 13. veka ali iz Limoža, iz Francuske. Da li je medaljon naknadno dodat čaši, možda je ova čaša primer saradnje nekog domaćeg i stranog majstora – vrlo je moguće da je bokove čaše radio neki lokalni majstor, a medaljon njegov kolega iz inostranstva. Videćemo, biće to lepa priča.
Koja čaša je najlepša?
Naravno da najlepše nema –
sve su najlepše. Za mnoge je to ona iz Stobija, sada u Narodnom muzeju. Pozlaćena je, kao i gotovo sve čaše iz 14. veka, skladna – njenih 12 lučnih ivica podsećaju na talase, ali i zbog medaljona: u središnjem je portret muškarca duge talasaste kose u košulji s nabranim okovratnikom, a u dva bočna su fantastične životinje izvijenih repova. Zatim, kako oceniti lepotu čaše nađene u Negotinu, napravljenu u 16. veku, u čijem je medaljonu jelen u trku, a po zidovima, u prvom krugu su sova, soko, majmun koji svira duvački instrument, ptica, vuk, pas, zec... svi oni stoje, trče, izvijaju se, saginju, a iznad njih, u drugom krugu je još 15 životinja, riba i ptica.
I da ne nabrajamo više.
O čemu pričaju srednjovekovne čaše?
Osim o bogatoj Srbiji punoj trgovaca koji su kupovali njeno srebro, o srpskim vladarima i njihovom uživanju u lepim stvarima, o čemu je već bilo reči, one pričaju i na prvi pogled neuočljive priče.
Na primer, da su srebrne čaše bile znak položaja: ko je goste služio vinom iz srebrnih čaša, važio je za uglednog i imućnog čoveka. Za takve ljude pravljene su namenske čaše za slavu sa svetiteljem u sredini. Jednu od takvih krasi portret svetog Nikole koji blagosilja dok ga okružuju 12 apostola, drugu Bogorodica s Hristom koji u desnoj ruci drži zamotani svitak, treću sveti Jovan. To znači, priča Mila Gajić, da je tada, a reč je o 16. veku, postojala proizvodnja čaša namenjenih posebno za slavu, i da su one prodavane. Natpis kojim se blagosilja kupac čaše navodi na taj zaključak.
Srebrne okrugle čaše počele su
u 18. veku da gube prvobitnu namenu, ali su dobile novu – postale su ukrasne zdelice oblikovane u baroknom duhu. Biće da im je upravo to produžilo život.
Možda je sad nama, koji svakodnevno koristimo plastične čaše, neobična bilo kakva misao o životu jednog predmeta. Razumljivo što je tako. Ali, nemojte se začuditi ako pri tom pomislite da i ta vaša čaša, koju upravo držite u ruci, ima život.
Izvor: Politikin Z. br 3072
Vreme....
Da li je vreme samo iluzija?
Zabeleženo je da je Albert Ajnštajn, jednom prilikom rekao: "Kad muškarac sedi sa lepom ženom jedan sat, čini mu se da je prošao samo jedan minut. Ali stavite ga da sedi na vreloj peći jedan minut, i činiće mu se da to traje satima. To je relativnost"
Ono što je hteo da kaže jeste da je doživljaj vremena subjektivan, čini se da vreme provedeno u zabavi prolazi mnogo brže od onoga koje se provodi u manje prijatnim okolnostima. Psiholozi imaju čvrste dokaze o subjektivnoj prirodi vremena, a ta pojava nazvana je Kapa efekat. Ona doprinosi utisku da putovanja, na kojima se prelaze veća rastojanja traju duže, nego kada se za isto vreme prevaljuju manje razdaljine. Postoje fizičari koji smatraju da bi čitava zamisao o vremenu, mogla da bude iluzija. Ti fizičari smatraju da ono što mo primamo kao vreme proističe iz dubljih fizičkih procesa, otprilike na isti način, kao što razne mere poput temperature ili pritiska u stvari nastaju samo kao rezultat sudaranja atoma i molekula.
-izvor: Politikin Z. br 3072
24 December 2010
It was very good year.... that 1982
This year was tremendous for me in many reasons.... one is just mine and the other is:
Commodore 64
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Commodore 64
Type Home computer
Release date August 1982
Discontinued April 1994
Operating system Commodore KERNAL/
Commodore BASIC 2.0
CPU MOS Technology 6510
@ 1.023 MHz (NTSC version)
@ 0.985 MHz (PAL version)
Memory 64 kB RAM + 20 kB ROM
Graphics VIC-II (320 × 200, 16 colors, sprites, raster interrupt)
Sound SID 6581 (3× Osc, 4× Wave, Filter, ADSR, Ring)
Connectivity 2× CIA 6526 Joystick, Power, Cartridge, RF, A/V, IEEE-488 Floppy/Printer, Digital tape, GPIO/RS-232
Predecessor Commodore VIC-20
Successor Commodore 128
The Commodore 64 is an 8-bit home computer introduced by Commodore International in January 1982. Volume production started in the spring of 1982, with machines being released on to the market in August at a price of US $595[1][2]. Preceded by the Commodore VIC-20 and Commodore MAX Machine, the C64 features 64 kilobytes (65,536 bytes) of memory with sound and graphics performance that were superior to IBM-compatible computers of that time. It is commonly known as the C64 or C=64 (after the graphic logo on the case) and occasionally as the CBM 64 (for Commodore Business Machines), or VIC-64.[3] It has also been affectionately nicknamed the "breadbox" and "bullnose" due to the shape and color of the first version of its casing[citation needed].
During the C64's lifetime, sales totaled 17 million units, making it the best-selling single personal computer model of all time.[4] For a substantial period of time (1983–1986), the C64 dominated the market with between 30% and 40% share and 2 million units sold per year[5], outselling the IBM PC clones, Apple Inc. computers, and Atari 8-bit family computers. Sam Tramiel, a former Atari president and the son of Commodore's founder, said in a 1989 interview "When I was at Commodore we were building 400,000 C64s a month for a couple of years."[6]
Part of its success was because it was sold in retail stores instead of electronics stores, and also because these machines can be directly plugged into an existing home television without any modifications. Commodore produced many of its parts in-house to control supplies and cost. It is sometimes compared to the Ford Model-T automobile for bringing a new technology to middle-class households via creative mass-production[7].
Approximately 10,000 commercial software titles were made for the Commodore 64 including development tools, office applications, and games[8]. Various C64 emulators allow anyone with a modern computer, or a compatible game console, to run these programs today. The machine is also credited with popularizing the computer demo scene. The C64 is still used today by some computer hobbyists[9].
Since 28 March 2008, Commodore 64 games have been available to buy through Nintendo's Virtual Console service in Europe; the first games available were Uridium and International Karate[10][11]. Later, on February 23, 2009, the Commodore 64 section was launched in North America with the first three titles, International Karate, The Last Ninja and Pitstop II. A C64 emulator application with classic games also appears on Apple Inc.'s App Store.Contents [hide]
History
The Commodore 64 startup screen
In January 1981, MOS Technology, Inc., Commodore's integrated circuit design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic and audio chips for a next generation video game console. Design work for the chips, named MOS Technology VIC-II (graphics) and MOS Technology SID (audio), was completed in November 1981[1].
A game console project was then initiated by Commodore that would use the new chips—called the Ultimax or alternatively the Commodore MAX Machine, engineered by Yash Terakura from Commodore Japan. This project was eventually cancelled after just a few machines were manufactured for the Japanese market.
At the same time, Robert "Bob" Russell (system programmer and architect on the VIC-20) and Robert "Bob" Yannes (engineer of the SID) were critical of the current product line-up at Commodore, which was a continuation of the Commodore PET line aimed at business users. With the support of Al Charpentier (engineer of the VIC-II) and Charles Winterble (manager of MOS Technology), they proposed to Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel a true low-cost sequel to the VIC-20. Tramiel dictated that the machine should have 64 kB of RAM. Although 64 KB of DRAM cost over US$ 100 at the time, he knew that DRAM prices were falling, and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached. In November, Tramiel set a deadline for the first weekend of January, to coincide with the 1982 Consumer Electronics Show[1].
The product was codenamed the VIC-40 as the successor to the popular VIC-20. The team that constructed it consisted of Bob Russell, Bob Yannes and David A. Ziembicki. The design, prototypes and some sample software was finished in time for the show, after the team had worked tirelessly over both Thanksgiving and Christmas weekends.
The machine incorporated Commodore BASIC 2.0 in ROM and available immediately at startup.
When the product was to be presented, the VIC-40 product was renamed C64 in order to fit into the current Commodore business products lineup which contained the P128 and the B256, both named by a letter and their respective memory size.
The C64 made an impressive debut at the January 1982 Winter Consumer Electronics Show, as recalled by Production Engineer David A. Ziembicki: "All we saw at our booth were Atari people with their mouths dropping open, saying, 'How can you do that for $595?'" The answer, as it turned out, was vertical integration; thanks to Commodore's ownership of MOS Technology's semiconductor fabrication facilities, each C64 had an estimated production cost of only US$135.
[edit]
Winning the market war
Games cartridges for Radar Rat Race and International Soccer
The C64 faced a wide range of competing home computers at its introduction in August 1982. With an impressive price coupled with the C64's more flexible hardware, it quickly out-sold many of its competitors. In the United States the greatest competitors to the C64 were the Atari 8-bit 400 and 800, and the Apple II. The Atari 400 and 800 were very similar in hardware terms, but used custom chips for graphics and sound, and so were very expensive to build. The Apple IIe, the latest in the aging Apple II line had higher resolution graphics modes than the C64[12][13], but due to poor color support they were rarely used[citation needed], so in practice the C64's 16-color (4-bit) graphics and sound abilities outmatched them at the time of its release. Upgrade capability for the Apple II was granted by internal expansion slots, while C64 had only an external cartridge plug. The Apple, however, required to use its expansion slots for interfacing to disk drives, printers and modems, ports for all of which were built into the C64's motherboard.
All four machines had similar standard memory configurations in the years 1982/83: 48 kB for the Apple II+[14] (upgraded within months of C64's release to 64K with the Apple IIe) and 48K for the Atari 800[15]. At upwards of US$ 1200[16], the Apple II was more than twice as expensive, while the Atari 800 cost US$899. One key to the C64's success was Commodore's aggressive marketing tactics, and they were quick to exploit the relative price/performance divisions between its competitors with a series of television commercials after the C64's launch in late 1982[17].
Commodore sold the C64 not only through its network of authorized dealers, but also placed it on the shelves of department stores, discount stores, and toy stores. The C64 had a built-in RF modulator and thus could be plugged into a television set. This allowed it (like its predecessor, the VIC-20) to compete directly against video game consoles such as the Atari 2600. Like the Apple IIe, the C64 could also output baseband composite video and thus could be plugged into a specialized monitor for a sharper picture. Unlike the IIe, the C64's baseband NTSC output capability included separate luminance/chrominance signal output equivalent to (and electrically compatible with) S-Video, for connection to the popular Commodore 1702 monitor.
Aggressive pricing of the C64 is considered to be a major catalyst in the North American video game crash of 1983. In January 1983, Commodore offered a US$ 100 rebate in the United States on the purchase of a C64 to anyone trading in another computer or video game console. To take advantage of this rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a Timex Sinclair 1000 for as little as US$ 10 with purchase of a C64, so the consumer could send the TS1000 to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference; Timex Corporation departed the computer market within a year. Commodore's tactics soon led to a price war with the major home computer manufacturers. The success of the VIC-20 and C64 contributed significantly to the exit of Texas Instruments and other smaller competitors from the field. The price war with Texas Instruments (TI) was seen as a personal battle for Commodore president Jack Tramiel; TI's subsequent demise in the home computer industry in October 1983 was seen as revenge for TI's tactics in the electronic calculator market in the mid 1970s, when Commodore was almost bankrupted by TI[18]. In parts of the US in the late 1980s, new C64s could be purchased in retail chains for a little more than US$ 100.
In 1984, Commodore released the Commodore Plus/4. The Plus/4 offered a higher-color display, a better implementation of BASIC (V3.5), and built-in software. However, Commodore committed what was perceived by critics and consumers as a major strategic error by making it incompatible with the C64. The Plus/4 lacked hardware sprite capability and had much poorer sound, thus seriously underperforming in two of the areas that had made the C64 successful.
In Europe, the primary competitors to the C64 were the British-built Sinclair ZX Spectrum, BBC Microcomputer and the Amstrad CPC 464. In the UK, the Spectrum had been released a few months ahead of the C64, and was selling for less than half the price. The Spectrum quickly became the market leader and Commodore had an uphill struggle against the Spectrum as it could not rely on undercutting the competition. The C64 debuted at £399 in early 1983, while the Spectrum cost £175. The C64 would later rival the Spectrum in popularity in the latter half of the 1980s, eventually outliving the Spectrum, which was discontinued in December 1990.
Despite a few attempts by Commodore to discontinue the C64 in favor of other, higher priced machines, constant demand made its discontinuation a hard task. By 1988, Commodore was selling 1.5 million C64s worldwide[19]. Although demand for the C64 dropped off in the US by 1990, it continued to be popular in the UK and other European countries. In the end, economics, not obsolescence, sealed the C64's fate. In March 1994, at CeBIT in Hanover, Germany, Commodore announced that the C64 would be finally discontinued in 1995. Commodore claimed that the C64's disk drive was more expensive to manufacture than the C64 itself. Although Commodore had planned to discontinue the C64 by 1995, the company filed for bankruptcy a month later, in April 1994[20].
[edit]
The C64 family
Commodore MAX Machine (1982)
Commodore SX-64 (1984)
Commodore 64 Games System "C64GS" (1990)
1982: Commodore released the Commodore MAX Machine in Japan. It is called the Ultimax in the US, and VC-10 in Germany. The MAX was intended to be a game console with limited computing capability, and was based on a very cut-down version of the hardware family later used in the C64. The MAX was discontinued months after its introduction, because of poor sales in Japan.
1983 saw Commodore attempt to compete with the Apple II's hold on the U.S. education market with the Educator 64[21], essentially a C64 and monochrome monitor in a PET case. Schools preferred the all-in-one metal construction of the PET over the standard C64's separate components, which could be easily damaged, vandalized or stolen.
In 1984, Commodore released the SX-64, a portable version of the C64. The SX-64 has the distinction of being the first full-color portable computer. The base unit featured a 5 in (130 mm) CRT and an integrated 1541 floppy disk drive. The SX-64 did not have a cassette connector.
Commodore was determined to avoid the problems of the Plus/4, making sure that the eventual successors to the C64—the Commodore 128 and 128D computers (1985)—were as good as, and fully compatible with the original, as well as offering a host of improvements (such as a structured BASIC with graphics and sound commands, 80-column display capability, and full CP/M compatibility).
Commodore 64C with 1541-II floppy disk drive and 1084S monitor displaying television-compatible S-video
In 1986, Commodore released the Commodore 64C (C64C) computer, which was functionally identical to the original, but whose exterior design was remodeled in the sleeker style of the Commodore 128 and other contemporary design trends. The modifications to the C64 line were more than skin deep in the C64C with new versions of the SID, VIC and I/O chips being deployed—with the core voltage reduced from 12 V to 9 V. In the United States, the C64C was often bundled with the third-party GEOS GUI-based operating system. The Commodore 1541 disk drive received a matching face-lift resulting in the 1541c. Later a smaller, sleeker 1541-II model was introduced along with the 800 KB 3.5-inch capable 1581.
In 1990, the C64 was re-released in the form of a game console, called the C64 Games System (C64GS). A simple modification to the C64C's motherboard was made to orient the cartridge connector to a vertical position. This allowed cartridges to be inserted from above. A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge. It was designed to rival the Nintendo Entertainment System and the Sega Master System but it suffered from very low sales compared to its rivals and it was another commercial failure for Commodore, and it was never released outside of Europe.
In 1990, an advanced successor to the C64, the Commodore 65 (also known as the "C64DX"), was prototyped, but the project was canceled by Commodore's chairman Irving Gould in 1991. The C65's specifications were very good for an 8-bit computer. For example, it could display 256 colors on screen, while OCS based Amigas could only display 64 in HalfBrite mode (32 colors and half-bright transformations); the HAM mode on the Amiga allowed all 4096 colors of the 12 bit color system, but it was awkward to use and had restrictions on color combinations between adjacent pixels. Although no specific reason was given for the C65's cancellation, it would have competed in the marketplace with Commodore's lower end Amigas and the CDTV.
[edit]
C64 clones
In the middle of 2004, after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer Tulip Computers BV (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the C64 Direct-to-TV (C64DTV), a joystick-based TV game based on the C64 with 30 games built into ROM. Designed by Jeri Ellsworth, a self-taught computer designer who had earlier designed the modern C-One C64 implementation, the C64DTV was similar in concept to other mini-consoles based on the Atari 2600 and Intellivision which had gained modest success earlier in the decade. The product was advertised on QVC in the United States for the 2004 holiday season. Some users have installed 1541 floppy disk drives, hard drives, second joysticks and keyboards to these units, which give the DTV devices nearly all of the capabilities of a full Commodore 64. The DTV hardware is also used in the mini-console/game Hummer, sold at RadioShack mid-2005.
C64 enthusiasts still develop new hardware, including Ethernet cards[22], specially adapted hard disks and Flash Card interfaces.
[edit]
Software
Main article: Commodore 64 software
Screenshot of International Karate +
At the time of its introduction, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivalled only by the Atari 8-bit family. This was at a time when most IBM PCs and compatibles had text-only display adapter cards, monochrome monitors, and sound consisting of squeaks and beeps from the built-in tiny, low-quality speaker.
The C64 is often credited with starting the computer subculture known as the demoscene (see Commodore 64 demos). The C64 lost its top position among demo coders when the 32-bit Commodore Amiga and Atari ST were released in 1985, however it still remained a very popular platform for demo coding up to the early 90s[citation needed].
It is still being actively used as a demo machine[23], especially for music (its sound chip even being used in special sound cards for PCs, and the Elektron SidStation synthesizer). Unfortunately, the differences between PAL and NTSC C64s caused compatibility problems between U.S./Canadian C64s and those from most other countries. The vast majority of demos run only on PAL machines.
Even though it was released in 1982, the C64 was still a strong competitor to the later consoles Nintendo Entertainment System and Sega Master System, thanks to its by-then established software base.
During the 1980s, the Commodore 64 was used to run numerous Bulletin Board Systems using software packages such as Bizarre 64, Blue Board and Color 64, often with sysop-made modifications. These boards often were used to distribute cracked software.
[edit]
BASIC
Main article: Commodore BASIC
The Simons' BASIC start-up screen. Note the altered background and text colours (vs the ordinary C64 blue tones), and the 8 KB reduction of available BASIC program memory due to the the address space used by the cartridge.
As was common for machines of the time, the C64 incorporated a ROM based version of the BASIC programming language. Commodore BASIC 2.0 was used instead of the more advanced BASIC 4.0 from the PET series, since its users were not expected to need the disk-oriented enhancements of BASIC 4.0. "The choice of BASIC 2.0 instead of 4.0 was made with some soul-searching, not just at random. The typical user of a C64 is not expected to need the direct disk commands as much as other extensions, and the amount of memory to be committed to BASIC was to be limited. We chose to leave expansion space for color and sound extensions instead of the disk features. As a result, you will have to handle the disk in the more cumbersome manner of the 'old days'."[24]
The version of BASIC was limited and did not include commands for sound or graphics manipulation, instead users had to use the "POKE" command to access the graphics and sound chip registers directly. In order to provide extended commands including graphics and sound Commodore produced two different cartridge-based extension to BASIC 2.0 — Simons' BASIC and Super Expander 64.
[edit]
Alternative operating systems
A number of third party operating systems have been developed for the C64.
GEOS for the Commodore 64
As well as the original GEOS, two third-party GEOS-compatible operating systems have been written: Wheels and GEOS megapatch. Both of these require hardware upgrades to the original C64.
Several other operating systems are or have been available, including WiNGS OS, the Unix-like LUnix, operated from a command-line, and the embedded systems OS Contiki, with full GUI. Other less well known OSes include ACE, Asterix, DOS/65 and GeckOS.
A version of CP/M was released, but this required the addition of an external Z80 processor to the expansion bus, so is not considered a true C64 OS. Furthermore, the Z80 processor was underclocked to be compatible with the C64's memory bus, so performance was poor compared to other CP/M implementations. C64 CP/M and C128 CP/M both suffered a lack of software: although most commercial CP/M software would technically run on these systems, software media was incompatible between platforms. The low usage of CP/M on Commodores meant that software houses saw no need to invest in mastering versions for the Commodore filesystem. The Commodore 1571 disk drive was made compatible with a wide variety of disk formats to eliminate this weakness.
[edit]
Networking software
Quantum Link main menu
Quantum Link (or Q-Link) was a U.S. and Canadian online service for Commodore 64 and 128 personal computers that operated from November 5, 1985 to November 1, 1994. It was operated by Quantum Computer Services of Vienna, Virginia, which in October 1991 changed its name to America Online, and continues to operate its AOL service for the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh today. Q-Link was a modified version of the PlayNET system, which Control Video Corporation (CVC, later renamed Quantum Computer Services) licensed.
The Quantum Link networking service became America Online which became AOL-Time Warner and then AOL again.
[edit]
Online gaming
Main article: History of massively multiplayer online games
Don Daglow and the Stormfront game design team began working with AOL on original online games in 1987, in both text-based and graphical formats. At the time AOL was a Commodore 64 only online service, known as Quantum Computer Services, with just a few thousand subscribers, and was called Quantum Link. Online graphics in the late 1980s were severely restricted by the need to support modem data transfer rates as slow as 300 bits per second (bit/s). During the early 1990s, commercial use of the internet was limited by NSFNET acceptable use policies. Consequently, early online games like Legends of Future Past, Neverwinter Nights, GemStone III, Dragon's Gate, and Federation relied heavily on proprietary services such as CompuServe, America Online, and GEnie for distribution.
The title screen of Club Caribe
The first graphical character-based interactive environment was Club Caribe. First released as Habitat in 1988, Club Caribe was introduced by LucasArts for Q-Link customers on their Commodore 64 computers. Users could interact with one another, chat and exchange items. Although very basic, its use of online avatars (already well established off-line by Ultima and other games) and combination of chat and graphics was revolutionary.
[edit]
Hardware This article may contain too much repetition or redundant language. Please help improve it by merging similar text or removing repeated statements. (April 2010)
[edit]
CPU and memory
Main article: MOS Technology 6510
The C64 uses an 8-bit MOS Technology 6510 microprocessor. This is a close derivative of the 6502 with an added 6-bit internal I/O port that in the C64 is used for two purposes: to bank-switch the machine's ROM in and out of the processor's address space, and to operate the datasette tape recorder.
The C64 has 64 KB of RAM, of which 38 kB are available to built-in Commodore BASIC 2.0.
[edit]
Graphics
In-game sprite of Mayhem in Monsterland
Main article: MOS Technology VIC-II
The graphics chip, VIC-II, features 16 colors, eight hardware sprites per scanline (enabling up to 112 sprites per PAL screen), scrolling capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes. The standard text mode features 40 columns, like most Commodore PET models; the built in character encoding is not standard ASCII but PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963.
Most screen shots show borders around the screen, which is a feature of the VIC-II chip. By utilising interrupts to reset various hardware registers on precise timings it was possible to place graphics within the borders and thus utilise the full screen.[25]
[edit]
Sound
Main article: MOS Technology SID
The sound chip, SID, has three channels, each with its own ADSR envelope generator, ring modulation and filter capabilities. It was designed by Bob Yannes, who would later co-found synthesizer company Ensoniq. Yannes criticized other contemporary computer sound chips as "primitive, obviously... designed by people who knew nothing about music". Often the game music became a hit of its own among C64 users. Well-known composers and programmers of game music on the C64 are Rob Hubbard, David Whittaker, Chris Hülsbeck, Ben Daglish, Martin Galway and David Dunn among many others. Due to the chip's limitation to three channels, chords are played as arpeggios typically, coining the C64's characteristic lively sound. It was also possible to continuously update the master volume with sampled data to enable the playback of 4-bit digitized audio.
There are two versions of the SID chip, the 6581 and the 8580. The MOS Technology 6581 was used in all of the original "breadbox" C64s, the early versions of the C64C and the Commodore 128. The 6581 was replaced with the MOS Technology 8580 in 1987. The 6581 sound quality is a little more crisp, and many Commodore 64 fans prefer its sound. The main difference between the 6581 and the 8580 is the supply voltage. The 6581 uses a 12 volt supply, the 8580, a nine volt supply. A modification can be made to use the 6581 in a C64C board (which uses the nine volt chip).
The SID chip has a distinctive sound which retained a following of devotees to such a degree, that a number of audio enthusiasts and companies have designed SID-based products as add-ons for the C64, x86 PCs, and standalone or MIDI music devices such as the Elektron SidStation. These devices use chips taken from excess stock, or removed from used computers.
In 2007, Timbaland's extensive use of the SidStation led to the 2007 Timbaland plagiarism controversy around his tracks Block Party and Do It (written for Nelly Furtado).
[edit]
Hardware revisions
Cost reduction was the driving force behind the C64's motherboard revisions. Reducing manufacturing costs was vitally important to Commodore's survival during the price war and leaner years of the 16-bit era. The C64's original (NMOS based) motherboard would go through two major redesigns, (and numerous sub-revisions) exchanging positions of the VIC-II, SID and PLA chips. Initially, a large portion of the cost was eliminated by reducing the number of discrete components, such as diodes and resistors, which enabled the use of a smaller printed circuit board.
An early C64 motherboard (Rev A PAL 1982).
A C64C motherboard ("C64E" Rev B PAL 1992).
[edit]
ICs
The VIC-II was manufactured with 5 micrometer NMOS technology[1] and was clocked at either 17.73447 MHz (PAL) or 14.31818 MHz (NTSC). Internally, the clock was divided down to generate the dot clock (about 8 MHz) and the two-phase system clocks (about 1 MHz; the exact pixel and system clock speeds are slightly different between NTSC and PAL machines). At such high clock rates, the chip generated a lot of heat, forcing MOS Technology to use a ceramic DIL package (called a "CERDIP"). The ceramic package was more expensive, but it dissipated heat more effectively than plastic.
After a redesign in 1983, the VIC-II was encased in a plastic Dual Inline Package, which reduced costs substantially, but it did not totally eliminate the heat problem[1]. Without a ceramic package, the VIC-II required the use of a heat sink. To avoid extra cost, the metal RF shielding doubled as the heat sink for the VIC, although not all units shipped with this type of shielding. Most C64s in Europe shipped with a cardboard RF shield, coated with a layer of metal foil. The effectiveness of the cardboard was highly questionable, and worse still it acted as an insulator, blocking airflow which trapped heat generated by the SID, VIC, and PLA chips.
The SID was manufactured using NMOS at 7 and in some areas 6 micrometers[1]. The prototype SID and some very early production models featured a ceramic Dual Inline Package, but unlike the VIC-II, these are extremely rare as the SID was encased in plastic when production started in early 1982.
[edit]
Motherboard
In 1986, Commodore released the last revision to the classic C64 motherboard. It was otherwise identical to the 1984 design, except for the two 64 kilobit × 4 bit DRAM chips that replaced the original eight 64 kilobit × 1 bit ICs.
After the release of the C64C, MOS Technology began to reconfigure the C64's chipset to use HMOS production technology. The main benefit of using HMOS was that it required less voltage to drive the IC, which consequently generates less heat. This enhanced the overall reliability of the SID and VIC-II. The new chipset was re-numbered to 85xx in order to reflect the change to HMOS.
In 1987 Commodore released C64Cs with a totally redesigned motherboard commonly known as a "short board". The new board used the new HMOS chipset, featuring a new 64-pin PLA chip. The new "SuperPLA", as it was dubbed, integrated many discrete components and TTL chips. In the last revision of the C64C motherboard, the 2114 color RAM was integrated into the SuperPLA.
[edit]
Power supply
The C64 used an external power supply. This saved space within the computer's case. The 1541-II and 1581 disk drives, along with various third-party clones, also came with their own external power supply "bricks". These power supplies were notorious for failing over time. Many lasted less than two years and had to be replaced. Commodore later changed the design, however the new version was also prone to failure. It has been speculated that these supplies failed due to voltage regulator overheating. They were entirely encapsulated within an epoxy resin, a poor conductor of heat and impossible to repair. As of 2010, many Commodore 64 owners use home-made power supplies, often using separate 5 volt DC and 12 volt AC power supplies, wired to a common plug that attaches to the Commodore 64.
[edit]
Specifications
[edit]
Internal hardware
Microprocessor CPU:
MOS Technology 6510/8500 (the 6510/8500 being a modified 6502 with an integrated 6-bit I/O port)
Clock speed: 0.985 MHz (PAL) or 1.023 MHz (NTSC)
Video: MOS Technology VIC-II 6567/8562 (NTSC), 6569/8565 (PAL)
16 colors
Text mode: 40×25 characters; 256 user-defined chars (8×8 pixels, or 4×8 in multicolor mode); 4-bit color RAM defines foreground color
Bitmap modes: 320×200 (2 unique colors in each 8×8 pixel block)[26], 160×200 (3 unique colors + 1 common color in each 4×8 block)[27]
8 hardware sprites of 24×21 pixels (12×21 in multicolor mode)
Smooth scrolling, raster interrupts
Sound: MOS Technology 6581/8580 SID
3-channel synthesizer with programmable ADSR envelope
8 octaves
4 waveforms per audio channel: triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse, noise
Oscillator synchronization, ring modulation
Programmable filter: high pass, low pass, band pass, notch filter
Input/Output: Two 6526 Complex Interface Adapters
16 bit parallel I/O
8 bit serial I/O
Time of Day clock (TOD)
16 bit cascadable timers
RAM:
64 kB, of which 38 kB (minus 1 byte) were available for BASIC programs
512 bytes color RAM
Expandable to 320 kB with Commodore 1764 256 kB RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64 kB directly accessible; REU mostly intended for GEOS. REUs of 128 kB and 512 kB, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included. Creative Micro Designs also produced a 2 MB REU for the C64 and C128, called the 1750 XL. The technology actually supported up to 16 MB, but 2 MB was the biggest one officially made. Expansions of up to 16 MB were also possible via the CMD SuperCPU.
ROM:
20 kB (9 kB BASIC 2.0; 7 kB KERNAL; 4 kB character generator, providing two 2 kB character sets)
[edit]
I/O ports and power supply
Commodore 64 ports (from left: Cartridge, RF-adj, RF, A/V, 488, Tape, User + Joy1, Joy2, Power)
I/O ports:[28]
Cartridge expansion slot (slot for edge connector with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others)
Integrated RF modulator antenna output via a RCA connector. The used channel could be adjusted from number 36 with the potentiometer to the left.
8-pin DIN connector containing composite video output, separate Y/C outputs and sound input/output. Beware that this is the 270° (horseshoe) version of the plug, not the 360° circular version. Also note that some early C64 units use a 5-pin DIN connector that carries composite video and luminance signals, but lacks a chroma signal.[29]
Serial bus (serial version of IEEE-488, 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives
PET-type Commodore Datassette 300 baud tape interface (edge connector with digital cassette motor/read/write/key-sense signals, Ground and +5V DC lines. The cassette motor is controlled by a +5V DC signal from the 6502 CPU. The 9 V AC input is transformed into unregulated 6.36 V DC[30] which is used to actually power the cassette motor.[31]
User port (edge connector with TTL-level signals, for modems etc.; byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things, 17 logic signals, 7 Ground and voltage pins, including 9V AC)
2 × screwless DE9M game controller ports (compatible with Atari 2600 controllers), each supporting five digital inputs and two analog inputs. Available peripherals included digital joysticks, analog paddles, a light pen, the Commodore 1351 mouse, and the unique KoalaPad.
Power supply:
5V DC and 9VAC from an external "power brick", attached to a 7-pin female DIN-connector on the computer[32].
The 9 volt AC is used to supply power via a charge pump to the SID sound generator chip, provide 6.8V via a rectifier to the cassette motor, a "0" pulse for every positive half wave to the time-of-day (TOD) input on the CIA chips, and 9 volts AC directly to the user-port. Thus, as a minimum, a 12 V square wave is required. But a 9 V sine wave is preferred[33][34].
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Commodore 64
Type Home computer
Release date August 1982
Discontinued April 1994
Operating system Commodore KERNAL/
Commodore BASIC 2.0
CPU MOS Technology 6510
@ 1.023 MHz (NTSC version)
@ 0.985 MHz (PAL version)
Memory 64 kB RAM + 20 kB ROM
Graphics VIC-II (320 × 200, 16 colors, sprites, raster interrupt)
Sound SID 6581 (3× Osc, 4× Wave, Filter, ADSR, Ring)
Connectivity 2× CIA 6526 Joystick, Power, Cartridge, RF, A/V, IEEE-488 Floppy/Printer, Digital tape, GPIO/RS-232
Predecessor Commodore VIC-20
Successor Commodore 128
The Commodore 64 is an 8-bit home computer introduced by Commodore International in January 1982. Volume production started in the spring of 1982, with machines being released on to the market in August at a price of US $595[1][2]. Preceded by the Commodore VIC-20 and Commodore MAX Machine, the C64 features 64 kilobytes (65,536 bytes) of memory with sound and graphics performance that were superior to IBM-compatible computers of that time. It is commonly known as the C64 or C=64 (after the graphic logo on the case) and occasionally as the CBM 64 (for Commodore Business Machines), or VIC-64.[3] It has also been affectionately nicknamed the "breadbox" and "bullnose" due to the shape and color of the first version of its casing[citation needed].
During the C64's lifetime, sales totaled 17 million units, making it the best-selling single personal computer model of all time.[4] For a substantial period of time (1983–1986), the C64 dominated the market with between 30% and 40% share and 2 million units sold per year[5], outselling the IBM PC clones, Apple Inc. computers, and Atari 8-bit family computers. Sam Tramiel, a former Atari president and the son of Commodore's founder, said in a 1989 interview "When I was at Commodore we were building 400,000 C64s a month for a couple of years."[6]
Part of its success was because it was sold in retail stores instead of electronics stores, and also because these machines can be directly plugged into an existing home television without any modifications. Commodore produced many of its parts in-house to control supplies and cost. It is sometimes compared to the Ford Model-T automobile for bringing a new technology to middle-class households via creative mass-production[7].
Approximately 10,000 commercial software titles were made for the Commodore 64 including development tools, office applications, and games[8]. Various C64 emulators allow anyone with a modern computer, or a compatible game console, to run these programs today. The machine is also credited with popularizing the computer demo scene. The C64 is still used today by some computer hobbyists[9].
Since 28 March 2008, Commodore 64 games have been available to buy through Nintendo's Virtual Console service in Europe; the first games available were Uridium and International Karate[10][11]. Later, on February 23, 2009, the Commodore 64 section was launched in North America with the first three titles, International Karate, The Last Ninja and Pitstop II. A C64 emulator application with classic games also appears on Apple Inc.'s App Store.Contents [hide]
History
The Commodore 64 startup screen
In January 1981, MOS Technology, Inc., Commodore's integrated circuit design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic and audio chips for a next generation video game console. Design work for the chips, named MOS Technology VIC-II (graphics) and MOS Technology SID (audio), was completed in November 1981[1].
A game console project was then initiated by Commodore that would use the new chips—called the Ultimax or alternatively the Commodore MAX Machine, engineered by Yash Terakura from Commodore Japan. This project was eventually cancelled after just a few machines were manufactured for the Japanese market.
At the same time, Robert "Bob" Russell (system programmer and architect on the VIC-20) and Robert "Bob" Yannes (engineer of the SID) were critical of the current product line-up at Commodore, which was a continuation of the Commodore PET line aimed at business users. With the support of Al Charpentier (engineer of the VIC-II) and Charles Winterble (manager of MOS Technology), they proposed to Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel a true low-cost sequel to the VIC-20. Tramiel dictated that the machine should have 64 kB of RAM. Although 64 KB of DRAM cost over US$ 100 at the time, he knew that DRAM prices were falling, and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached. In November, Tramiel set a deadline for the first weekend of January, to coincide with the 1982 Consumer Electronics Show[1].
The product was codenamed the VIC-40 as the successor to the popular VIC-20. The team that constructed it consisted of Bob Russell, Bob Yannes and David A. Ziembicki. The design, prototypes and some sample software was finished in time for the show, after the team had worked tirelessly over both Thanksgiving and Christmas weekends.
The machine incorporated Commodore BASIC 2.0 in ROM and available immediately at startup.
When the product was to be presented, the VIC-40 product was renamed C64 in order to fit into the current Commodore business products lineup which contained the P128 and the B256, both named by a letter and their respective memory size.
The C64 made an impressive debut at the January 1982 Winter Consumer Electronics Show, as recalled by Production Engineer David A. Ziembicki: "All we saw at our booth were Atari people with their mouths dropping open, saying, 'How can you do that for $595?'" The answer, as it turned out, was vertical integration; thanks to Commodore's ownership of MOS Technology's semiconductor fabrication facilities, each C64 had an estimated production cost of only US$135.
[edit]
Winning the market war
Games cartridges for Radar Rat Race and International Soccer
The C64 faced a wide range of competing home computers at its introduction in August 1982. With an impressive price coupled with the C64's more flexible hardware, it quickly out-sold many of its competitors. In the United States the greatest competitors to the C64 were the Atari 8-bit 400 and 800, and the Apple II. The Atari 400 and 800 were very similar in hardware terms, but used custom chips for graphics and sound, and so were very expensive to build. The Apple IIe, the latest in the aging Apple II line had higher resolution graphics modes than the C64[12][13], but due to poor color support they were rarely used[citation needed], so in practice the C64's 16-color (4-bit) graphics and sound abilities outmatched them at the time of its release. Upgrade capability for the Apple II was granted by internal expansion slots, while C64 had only an external cartridge plug. The Apple, however, required to use its expansion slots for interfacing to disk drives, printers and modems, ports for all of which were built into the C64's motherboard.
All four machines had similar standard memory configurations in the years 1982/83: 48 kB for the Apple II+[14] (upgraded within months of C64's release to 64K with the Apple IIe) and 48K for the Atari 800[15]. At upwards of US$ 1200[16], the Apple II was more than twice as expensive, while the Atari 800 cost US$899. One key to the C64's success was Commodore's aggressive marketing tactics, and they were quick to exploit the relative price/performance divisions between its competitors with a series of television commercials after the C64's launch in late 1982[17].
Commodore sold the C64 not only through its network of authorized dealers, but also placed it on the shelves of department stores, discount stores, and toy stores. The C64 had a built-in RF modulator and thus could be plugged into a television set. This allowed it (like its predecessor, the VIC-20) to compete directly against video game consoles such as the Atari 2600. Like the Apple IIe, the C64 could also output baseband composite video and thus could be plugged into a specialized monitor for a sharper picture. Unlike the IIe, the C64's baseband NTSC output capability included separate luminance/chrominance signal output equivalent to (and electrically compatible with) S-Video, for connection to the popular Commodore 1702 monitor.
Aggressive pricing of the C64 is considered to be a major catalyst in the North American video game crash of 1983. In January 1983, Commodore offered a US$ 100 rebate in the United States on the purchase of a C64 to anyone trading in another computer or video game console. To take advantage of this rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a Timex Sinclair 1000 for as little as US$ 10 with purchase of a C64, so the consumer could send the TS1000 to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference; Timex Corporation departed the computer market within a year. Commodore's tactics soon led to a price war with the major home computer manufacturers. The success of the VIC-20 and C64 contributed significantly to the exit of Texas Instruments and other smaller competitors from the field. The price war with Texas Instruments (TI) was seen as a personal battle for Commodore president Jack Tramiel; TI's subsequent demise in the home computer industry in October 1983 was seen as revenge for TI's tactics in the electronic calculator market in the mid 1970s, when Commodore was almost bankrupted by TI[18]. In parts of the US in the late 1980s, new C64s could be purchased in retail chains for a little more than US$ 100.
In 1984, Commodore released the Commodore Plus/4. The Plus/4 offered a higher-color display, a better implementation of BASIC (V3.5), and built-in software. However, Commodore committed what was perceived by critics and consumers as a major strategic error by making it incompatible with the C64. The Plus/4 lacked hardware sprite capability and had much poorer sound, thus seriously underperforming in two of the areas that had made the C64 successful.
In Europe, the primary competitors to the C64 were the British-built Sinclair ZX Spectrum, BBC Microcomputer and the Amstrad CPC 464. In the UK, the Spectrum had been released a few months ahead of the C64, and was selling for less than half the price. The Spectrum quickly became the market leader and Commodore had an uphill struggle against the Spectrum as it could not rely on undercutting the competition. The C64 debuted at £399 in early 1983, while the Spectrum cost £175. The C64 would later rival the Spectrum in popularity in the latter half of the 1980s, eventually outliving the Spectrum, which was discontinued in December 1990.
Despite a few attempts by Commodore to discontinue the C64 in favor of other, higher priced machines, constant demand made its discontinuation a hard task. By 1988, Commodore was selling 1.5 million C64s worldwide[19]. Although demand for the C64 dropped off in the US by 1990, it continued to be popular in the UK and other European countries. In the end, economics, not obsolescence, sealed the C64's fate. In March 1994, at CeBIT in Hanover, Germany, Commodore announced that the C64 would be finally discontinued in 1995. Commodore claimed that the C64's disk drive was more expensive to manufacture than the C64 itself. Although Commodore had planned to discontinue the C64 by 1995, the company filed for bankruptcy a month later, in April 1994[20].
[edit]
The C64 family
Commodore MAX Machine (1982)
Commodore SX-64 (1984)
Commodore 64 Games System "C64GS" (1990)
1982: Commodore released the Commodore MAX Machine in Japan. It is called the Ultimax in the US, and VC-10 in Germany. The MAX was intended to be a game console with limited computing capability, and was based on a very cut-down version of the hardware family later used in the C64. The MAX was discontinued months after its introduction, because of poor sales in Japan.
1983 saw Commodore attempt to compete with the Apple II's hold on the U.S. education market with the Educator 64[21], essentially a C64 and monochrome monitor in a PET case. Schools preferred the all-in-one metal construction of the PET over the standard C64's separate components, which could be easily damaged, vandalized or stolen.
In 1984, Commodore released the SX-64, a portable version of the C64. The SX-64 has the distinction of being the first full-color portable computer. The base unit featured a 5 in (130 mm) CRT and an integrated 1541 floppy disk drive. The SX-64 did not have a cassette connector.
Commodore was determined to avoid the problems of the Plus/4, making sure that the eventual successors to the C64—the Commodore 128 and 128D computers (1985)—were as good as, and fully compatible with the original, as well as offering a host of improvements (such as a structured BASIC with graphics and sound commands, 80-column display capability, and full CP/M compatibility).
Commodore 64C with 1541-II floppy disk drive and 1084S monitor displaying television-compatible S-video
In 1986, Commodore released the Commodore 64C (C64C) computer, which was functionally identical to the original, but whose exterior design was remodeled in the sleeker style of the Commodore 128 and other contemporary design trends. The modifications to the C64 line were more than skin deep in the C64C with new versions of the SID, VIC and I/O chips being deployed—with the core voltage reduced from 12 V to 9 V. In the United States, the C64C was often bundled with the third-party GEOS GUI-based operating system. The Commodore 1541 disk drive received a matching face-lift resulting in the 1541c. Later a smaller, sleeker 1541-II model was introduced along with the 800 KB 3.5-inch capable 1581.
In 1990, the C64 was re-released in the form of a game console, called the C64 Games System (C64GS). A simple modification to the C64C's motherboard was made to orient the cartridge connector to a vertical position. This allowed cartridges to be inserted from above. A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge. It was designed to rival the Nintendo Entertainment System and the Sega Master System but it suffered from very low sales compared to its rivals and it was another commercial failure for Commodore, and it was never released outside of Europe.
In 1990, an advanced successor to the C64, the Commodore 65 (also known as the "C64DX"), was prototyped, but the project was canceled by Commodore's chairman Irving Gould in 1991. The C65's specifications were very good for an 8-bit computer. For example, it could display 256 colors on screen, while OCS based Amigas could only display 64 in HalfBrite mode (32 colors and half-bright transformations); the HAM mode on the Amiga allowed all 4096 colors of the 12 bit color system, but it was awkward to use and had restrictions on color combinations between adjacent pixels. Although no specific reason was given for the C65's cancellation, it would have competed in the marketplace with Commodore's lower end Amigas and the CDTV.
[edit]
C64 clones
In the middle of 2004, after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer Tulip Computers BV (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the C64 Direct-to-TV (C64DTV), a joystick-based TV game based on the C64 with 30 games built into ROM. Designed by Jeri Ellsworth, a self-taught computer designer who had earlier designed the modern C-One C64 implementation, the C64DTV was similar in concept to other mini-consoles based on the Atari 2600 and Intellivision which had gained modest success earlier in the decade. The product was advertised on QVC in the United States for the 2004 holiday season. Some users have installed 1541 floppy disk drives, hard drives, second joysticks and keyboards to these units, which give the DTV devices nearly all of the capabilities of a full Commodore 64. The DTV hardware is also used in the mini-console/game Hummer, sold at RadioShack mid-2005.
C64 enthusiasts still develop new hardware, including Ethernet cards[22], specially adapted hard disks and Flash Card interfaces.
[edit]
Software
Main article: Commodore 64 software
Screenshot of International Karate +
At the time of its introduction, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivalled only by the Atari 8-bit family. This was at a time when most IBM PCs and compatibles had text-only display adapter cards, monochrome monitors, and sound consisting of squeaks and beeps from the built-in tiny, low-quality speaker.
The C64 is often credited with starting the computer subculture known as the demoscene (see Commodore 64 demos). The C64 lost its top position among demo coders when the 32-bit Commodore Amiga and Atari ST were released in 1985, however it still remained a very popular platform for demo coding up to the early 90s[citation needed].
It is still being actively used as a demo machine[23], especially for music (its sound chip even being used in special sound cards for PCs, and the Elektron SidStation synthesizer). Unfortunately, the differences between PAL and NTSC C64s caused compatibility problems between U.S./Canadian C64s and those from most other countries. The vast majority of demos run only on PAL machines.
Even though it was released in 1982, the C64 was still a strong competitor to the later consoles Nintendo Entertainment System and Sega Master System, thanks to its by-then established software base.
During the 1980s, the Commodore 64 was used to run numerous Bulletin Board Systems using software packages such as Bizarre 64, Blue Board and Color 64, often with sysop-made modifications. These boards often were used to distribute cracked software.
[edit]
BASIC
Main article: Commodore BASIC
The Simons' BASIC start-up screen. Note the altered background and text colours (vs the ordinary C64 blue tones), and the 8 KB reduction of available BASIC program memory due to the the address space used by the cartridge.
As was common for machines of the time, the C64 incorporated a ROM based version of the BASIC programming language. Commodore BASIC 2.0 was used instead of the more advanced BASIC 4.0 from the PET series, since its users were not expected to need the disk-oriented enhancements of BASIC 4.0. "The choice of BASIC 2.0 instead of 4.0 was made with some soul-searching, not just at random. The typical user of a C64 is not expected to need the direct disk commands as much as other extensions, and the amount of memory to be committed to BASIC was to be limited. We chose to leave expansion space for color and sound extensions instead of the disk features. As a result, you will have to handle the disk in the more cumbersome manner of the 'old days'."[24]
The version of BASIC was limited and did not include commands for sound or graphics manipulation, instead users had to use the "POKE" command to access the graphics and sound chip registers directly. In order to provide extended commands including graphics and sound Commodore produced two different cartridge-based extension to BASIC 2.0 — Simons' BASIC and Super Expander 64.
[edit]
Alternative operating systems
A number of third party operating systems have been developed for the C64.
GEOS for the Commodore 64
As well as the original GEOS, two third-party GEOS-compatible operating systems have been written: Wheels and GEOS megapatch. Both of these require hardware upgrades to the original C64.
Several other operating systems are or have been available, including WiNGS OS, the Unix-like LUnix, operated from a command-line, and the embedded systems OS Contiki, with full GUI. Other less well known OSes include ACE, Asterix, DOS/65 and GeckOS.
A version of CP/M was released, but this required the addition of an external Z80 processor to the expansion bus, so is not considered a true C64 OS. Furthermore, the Z80 processor was underclocked to be compatible with the C64's memory bus, so performance was poor compared to other CP/M implementations. C64 CP/M and C128 CP/M both suffered a lack of software: although most commercial CP/M software would technically run on these systems, software media was incompatible between platforms. The low usage of CP/M on Commodores meant that software houses saw no need to invest in mastering versions for the Commodore filesystem. The Commodore 1571 disk drive was made compatible with a wide variety of disk formats to eliminate this weakness.
[edit]
Networking software
Quantum Link main menu
Quantum Link (or Q-Link) was a U.S. and Canadian online service for Commodore 64 and 128 personal computers that operated from November 5, 1985 to November 1, 1994. It was operated by Quantum Computer Services of Vienna, Virginia, which in October 1991 changed its name to America Online, and continues to operate its AOL service for the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh today. Q-Link was a modified version of the PlayNET system, which Control Video Corporation (CVC, later renamed Quantum Computer Services) licensed.
The Quantum Link networking service became America Online which became AOL-Time Warner and then AOL again.
[edit]
Online gaming
Main article: History of massively multiplayer online games
Don Daglow and the Stormfront game design team began working with AOL on original online games in 1987, in both text-based and graphical formats. At the time AOL was a Commodore 64 only online service, known as Quantum Computer Services, with just a few thousand subscribers, and was called Quantum Link. Online graphics in the late 1980s were severely restricted by the need to support modem data transfer rates as slow as 300 bits per second (bit/s). During the early 1990s, commercial use of the internet was limited by NSFNET acceptable use policies. Consequently, early online games like Legends of Future Past, Neverwinter Nights, GemStone III, Dragon's Gate, and Federation relied heavily on proprietary services such as CompuServe, America Online, and GEnie for distribution.
The title screen of Club Caribe
The first graphical character-based interactive environment was Club Caribe. First released as Habitat in 1988, Club Caribe was introduced by LucasArts for Q-Link customers on their Commodore 64 computers. Users could interact with one another, chat and exchange items. Although very basic, its use of online avatars (already well established off-line by Ultima and other games) and combination of chat and graphics was revolutionary.
[edit]
Hardware This article may contain too much repetition or redundant language. Please help improve it by merging similar text or removing repeated statements. (April 2010)
[edit]
CPU and memory
Main article: MOS Technology 6510
The C64 uses an 8-bit MOS Technology 6510 microprocessor. This is a close derivative of the 6502 with an added 6-bit internal I/O port that in the C64 is used for two purposes: to bank-switch the machine's ROM in and out of the processor's address space, and to operate the datasette tape recorder.
The C64 has 64 KB of RAM, of which 38 kB are available to built-in Commodore BASIC 2.0.
[edit]
Graphics
In-game sprite of Mayhem in Monsterland
Main article: MOS Technology VIC-II
The graphics chip, VIC-II, features 16 colors, eight hardware sprites per scanline (enabling up to 112 sprites per PAL screen), scrolling capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes. The standard text mode features 40 columns, like most Commodore PET models; the built in character encoding is not standard ASCII but PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963.
Most screen shots show borders around the screen, which is a feature of the VIC-II chip. By utilising interrupts to reset various hardware registers on precise timings it was possible to place graphics within the borders and thus utilise the full screen.[25]
[edit]
Sound
Main article: MOS Technology SID
The sound chip, SID, has three channels, each with its own ADSR envelope generator, ring modulation and filter capabilities. It was designed by Bob Yannes, who would later co-found synthesizer company Ensoniq. Yannes criticized other contemporary computer sound chips as "primitive, obviously... designed by people who knew nothing about music". Often the game music became a hit of its own among C64 users. Well-known composers and programmers of game music on the C64 are Rob Hubbard, David Whittaker, Chris Hülsbeck, Ben Daglish, Martin Galway and David Dunn among many others. Due to the chip's limitation to three channels, chords are played as arpeggios typically, coining the C64's characteristic lively sound. It was also possible to continuously update the master volume with sampled data to enable the playback of 4-bit digitized audio.
There are two versions of the SID chip, the 6581 and the 8580. The MOS Technology 6581 was used in all of the original "breadbox" C64s, the early versions of the C64C and the Commodore 128. The 6581 was replaced with the MOS Technology 8580 in 1987. The 6581 sound quality is a little more crisp, and many Commodore 64 fans prefer its sound. The main difference between the 6581 and the 8580 is the supply voltage. The 6581 uses a 12 volt supply, the 8580, a nine volt supply. A modification can be made to use the 6581 in a C64C board (which uses the nine volt chip).
The SID chip has a distinctive sound which retained a following of devotees to such a degree, that a number of audio enthusiasts and companies have designed SID-based products as add-ons for the C64, x86 PCs, and standalone or MIDI music devices such as the Elektron SidStation. These devices use chips taken from excess stock, or removed from used computers.
In 2007, Timbaland's extensive use of the SidStation led to the 2007 Timbaland plagiarism controversy around his tracks Block Party and Do It (written for Nelly Furtado).
[edit]
Hardware revisions
Cost reduction was the driving force behind the C64's motherboard revisions. Reducing manufacturing costs was vitally important to Commodore's survival during the price war and leaner years of the 16-bit era. The C64's original (NMOS based) motherboard would go through two major redesigns, (and numerous sub-revisions) exchanging positions of the VIC-II, SID and PLA chips. Initially, a large portion of the cost was eliminated by reducing the number of discrete components, such as diodes and resistors, which enabled the use of a smaller printed circuit board.
An early C64 motherboard (Rev A PAL 1982).
A C64C motherboard ("C64E" Rev B PAL 1992).
[edit]
ICs
The VIC-II was manufactured with 5 micrometer NMOS technology[1] and was clocked at either 17.73447 MHz (PAL) or 14.31818 MHz (NTSC). Internally, the clock was divided down to generate the dot clock (about 8 MHz) and the two-phase system clocks (about 1 MHz; the exact pixel and system clock speeds are slightly different between NTSC and PAL machines). At such high clock rates, the chip generated a lot of heat, forcing MOS Technology to use a ceramic DIL package (called a "CERDIP"). The ceramic package was more expensive, but it dissipated heat more effectively than plastic.
After a redesign in 1983, the VIC-II was encased in a plastic Dual Inline Package, which reduced costs substantially, but it did not totally eliminate the heat problem[1]. Without a ceramic package, the VIC-II required the use of a heat sink. To avoid extra cost, the metal RF shielding doubled as the heat sink for the VIC, although not all units shipped with this type of shielding. Most C64s in Europe shipped with a cardboard RF shield, coated with a layer of metal foil. The effectiveness of the cardboard was highly questionable, and worse still it acted as an insulator, blocking airflow which trapped heat generated by the SID, VIC, and PLA chips.
The SID was manufactured using NMOS at 7 and in some areas 6 micrometers[1]. The prototype SID and some very early production models featured a ceramic Dual Inline Package, but unlike the VIC-II, these are extremely rare as the SID was encased in plastic when production started in early 1982.
[edit]
Motherboard
In 1986, Commodore released the last revision to the classic C64 motherboard. It was otherwise identical to the 1984 design, except for the two 64 kilobit × 4 bit DRAM chips that replaced the original eight 64 kilobit × 1 bit ICs.
After the release of the C64C, MOS Technology began to reconfigure the C64's chipset to use HMOS production technology. The main benefit of using HMOS was that it required less voltage to drive the IC, which consequently generates less heat. This enhanced the overall reliability of the SID and VIC-II. The new chipset was re-numbered to 85xx in order to reflect the change to HMOS.
In 1987 Commodore released C64Cs with a totally redesigned motherboard commonly known as a "short board". The new board used the new HMOS chipset, featuring a new 64-pin PLA chip. The new "SuperPLA", as it was dubbed, integrated many discrete components and TTL chips. In the last revision of the C64C motherboard, the 2114 color RAM was integrated into the SuperPLA.
[edit]
Power supply
The C64 used an external power supply. This saved space within the computer's case. The 1541-II and 1581 disk drives, along with various third-party clones, also came with their own external power supply "bricks". These power supplies were notorious for failing over time. Many lasted less than two years and had to be replaced. Commodore later changed the design, however the new version was also prone to failure. It has been speculated that these supplies failed due to voltage regulator overheating. They were entirely encapsulated within an epoxy resin, a poor conductor of heat and impossible to repair. As of 2010, many Commodore 64 owners use home-made power supplies, often using separate 5 volt DC and 12 volt AC power supplies, wired to a common plug that attaches to the Commodore 64.
[edit]
Specifications
[edit]
Internal hardware
Microprocessor CPU:
MOS Technology 6510/8500 (the 6510/8500 being a modified 6502 with an integrated 6-bit I/O port)
Clock speed: 0.985 MHz (PAL) or 1.023 MHz (NTSC)
Video: MOS Technology VIC-II 6567/8562 (NTSC), 6569/8565 (PAL)
16 colors
Text mode: 40×25 characters; 256 user-defined chars (8×8 pixels, or 4×8 in multicolor mode); 4-bit color RAM defines foreground color
Bitmap modes: 320×200 (2 unique colors in each 8×8 pixel block)[26], 160×200 (3 unique colors + 1 common color in each 4×8 block)[27]
8 hardware sprites of 24×21 pixels (12×21 in multicolor mode)
Smooth scrolling, raster interrupts
Sound: MOS Technology 6581/8580 SID
3-channel synthesizer with programmable ADSR envelope
8 octaves
4 waveforms per audio channel: triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse, noise
Oscillator synchronization, ring modulation
Programmable filter: high pass, low pass, band pass, notch filter
Input/Output: Two 6526 Complex Interface Adapters
16 bit parallel I/O
8 bit serial I/O
Time of Day clock (TOD)
16 bit cascadable timers
RAM:
64 kB, of which 38 kB (minus 1 byte) were available for BASIC programs
512 bytes color RAM
Expandable to 320 kB with Commodore 1764 256 kB RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64 kB directly accessible; REU mostly intended for GEOS. REUs of 128 kB and 512 kB, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included. Creative Micro Designs also produced a 2 MB REU for the C64 and C128, called the 1750 XL. The technology actually supported up to 16 MB, but 2 MB was the biggest one officially made. Expansions of up to 16 MB were also possible via the CMD SuperCPU.
ROM:
20 kB (9 kB BASIC 2.0; 7 kB KERNAL; 4 kB character generator, providing two 2 kB character sets)
[edit]
I/O ports and power supply
Commodore 64 ports (from left: Cartridge, RF-adj, RF, A/V, 488, Tape, User + Joy1, Joy2, Power)
I/O ports:[28]
Cartridge expansion slot (slot for edge connector with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others)
Integrated RF modulator antenna output via a RCA connector. The used channel could be adjusted from number 36 with the potentiometer to the left.
8-pin DIN connector containing composite video output, separate Y/C outputs and sound input/output. Beware that this is the 270° (horseshoe) version of the plug, not the 360° circular version. Also note that some early C64 units use a 5-pin DIN connector that carries composite video and luminance signals, but lacks a chroma signal.[29]
Serial bus (serial version of IEEE-488, 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives
PET-type Commodore Datassette 300 baud tape interface (edge connector with digital cassette motor/read/write/key-sense signals, Ground and +5V DC lines. The cassette motor is controlled by a +5V DC signal from the 6502 CPU. The 9 V AC input is transformed into unregulated 6.36 V DC[30] which is used to actually power the cassette motor.[31]
User port (edge connector with TTL-level signals, for modems etc.; byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things, 17 logic signals, 7 Ground and voltage pins, including 9V AC)
2 × screwless DE9M game controller ports (compatible with Atari 2600 controllers), each supporting five digital inputs and two analog inputs. Available peripherals included digital joysticks, analog paddles, a light pen, the Commodore 1351 mouse, and the unique KoalaPad.
Power supply:
5V DC and 9VAC from an external "power brick", attached to a 7-pin female DIN-connector on the computer[32].
The 9 volt AC is used to supply power via a charge pump to the SID sound generator chip, provide 6.8V via a rectifier to the cassette motor, a "0" pulse for every positive half wave to the time-of-day (TOD) input on the CIA chips, and 9 volts AC directly to the user-port. Thus, as a minimum, a 12 V square wave is required. But a 9 V sine wave is preferred[33][34].
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)